فصلنامه مسکن و محیط روستا
پیاپی 157 (بهار 1396)

Considering the conservation and cultural heritage of the most significant achievements of human communities have been reflected in various international documents during the last fifty years. Examining these documents are critical given that they summarize international experiences and reflect the evolution of human knowledge and philosophies in the field of conservation in general and conservation of rural heritage in particular. As one of the human's precious assets, villages and their characteristics and elements have been constantly mentioned and discussed in the process of evolving these documents. These documents view village as an ancient phenomenon, which expresses harmony between human and nature for centuries Villages have been continually adjusted to human needs, their social and natural environment, and hence are worthy to be conserved in their entirety.
This paper relies on examining and analyzing around thirty international documents in the field of conservation. This examination focuses on the meanings and conceptions of villages and rural values. This study is specifically concentrated on documents from three international organizations: UNESCO, ICOMOS and Council of Europe, in four periods; starting from International charter for the conservation and restoration of monuments and sites (Venice Charter 1964 A.D.) to Pan-European charter of rural heritage: for a sustainable territorial development 2012 A.D. Research methods consist of document review and content analysis of the original texts, using a descriptive- analytic research strategy. The content analysis focused on comparing different definitions, values, strategies and other elements related to the principles of conservation in these documents and their evolution. The paper concluded that in these documents, the “rural heritage” is considered to be of importance as a “harmonious whole” and a “multidisciplinary base”. Furthermore, conservation approaches have shifted from restoration to integrated conservation through multidisciplinary strategies, while the challenge of integrating rural conservation and rural development persists in these documents. This study and further research in this area can result in establishing reliable principles and approaches for rural conservation.

Nowadays, increasing environmental contaminants produced by using fossil fuels for heating is deemed to be one of the problems in the field of thermal comfort. Investigating the architectural techniques of the past shows that indoor ventilation is provided by maximizing the benefit from natural forces (in this article: wind). Therefore, it can be concluded that adopting local vernacular techniques can address the ventilation issues and problems in new buildings. Vernacular architecture in Ghaleno village in Sistan province can be considered as a valuable reference for the modern architecture, in terms of local materials and techniques that they use to address the regional climatic and cultural conditions. One of the most important techniques that can be adopted from vernacular architecture in this area relates to its adaptation to a common regional phenomenon, i.e. wind. Sistan is one of the most wind-prone regions in Iran, known for its 120-day Wind. The Climatic features of vernacular architecture in Gholeno Village can provide a suitable guide to identify the techniques by which the wind is used for ventilation in newly built housing. Identifying these techniques and adopting them in new buildings can significantly enhance the thermal quality of these buildings. This article identifies various types of rooms in Ghaleno Village, that are formed through adaption to the local climatic condition for enhancing indoor thermal comfort and analyses the wind behaviour in each type of room in terms of natural ventilation, and eventually chooses an optimum type in terms of natural ventilation.
The article first presents a descriptive-analytical study based on a field research on the local houses of Ghaleno Village. Then, it uses the CFD modeling to analyse wind behavior in the prevalent types of rooms in this village. For this analysis the study uses the Gambit simulation 2.4.6 to analyse the house geometry and to establish the mesh network as well as Ansis fluent 15 to analyze wind behavior. In order to validate the findings, on-site environmental measurements have been conducted as well. According to the analyses, optimal rooms have these features: a NE-SW direction, located perpendicular to the dominant regional wind direction, vernacular architectural elements such as “Kolak” in ceiling, reticulated window and “Sourak” in the north western front wall with proper dispersion on wall surface for ventilation purposes. However, due to the limitations on building Kolak, new buildings can only use Sourak and reticulated windows for enhancing their thermal condition.

Louvers have been an integral element of houses in the port-city of Laft. This element, howere, has gradually lost its function in most houses in the city. Rooms that contain louver have practically turned into useless spaces. In most houses, louvers have not been repaired and hence have been deteriorated or demolished. Furthermore, in houses within the new residential development of Laft louvers have no place. As a result, these valuable heritages of Iranian traditional architecture are being disappeared from the skyline of the city. This article studies the presence of this element in the life of Laft inhabitants. In particular, it investigates the typology of Laft louvers in houses. Conducting a literature review and a field study, the article examines the form of louvers and their locations in houses and analyzes the relationship between the louver room and other spaces in Laft port houses. Finally, it presents a number of findings about the different elements and the spatial quality of louver rooms as well as the common observed changes in this space that are resulted from lifestyle changes in recent years. These findings can provide some insights for architects into the steps they can take in the direction of retaining the function of this architectural element and enahncing the quality of this space. Explaining the current situation of louvers and analyzing data, this research concludes that louvers are located on the northside of dwellings so they can best catch the sea breeze and enhance the thermal comfort of the house. Even in cases where the louver is located in front of the louver of adjacent dwellings, because of the site slope and also the expertise of local architects no problem in catching the sea breeze is observed. The plan of louvers in Laft port is square, rectangular or octagonal, with the predominant form being a square with three square meters area. Octagonal louvers are less prevalent in the city. This article argues that examining the typology of louvers in houses can provide a basis for a better maintenance and renovation of this architectural element in Laft port.

Food production, food security and self-sufficiency are among the strategic concerns of communities around the world. FAO announced that in 2050 the amount of food production must be doubled. Villages are the primary responsible places for food production through agriculture and animal husbandry activities. Accordingly, the spatial organization of villages and rural houses has been highly influenced by food production activities. Current rural development projects in Iran, however, have paid little attention to this productive role of villages. The design of these projects is mainly inspired by modern urban planning and development models, imported from the West. Aside from the elimination of rural spatial and architectural identity as well as weakening of social relations, these projects undermine the importance of food production in these settlements. It is, therefore, critical to propose a conceptual framework for planning the future development of villages, while supporting their food production activities. The first part of this article examines the main characteristics of villages across the country to find out main factors and influential principles that shape these settlements. Theories of green urbanism have been adopted in order to identify those physical aspects of rural settlements that are related to food production activities. The findings of this study show that the concept of "agrarian urbanism" can provide a proper framework for the physical development of rural settlements. The idea of the physical development of human settlements based on production, consumption and trade of agricultural and horticultural products will strengthen the food production role of villages. This theory, proposed and developed by Duany and DPZ, aims at enhancing the quality of life within all transects mainly based on food production and provides some suggestions within the framework of green urbanism to shape and develop the spatial organization of different types of human settlements. This study adopts a deductive approach and is based on a literature review, which compares theories concerned with food production and their influence on human settlements in the context of Iranian villages.

The use of earthen materials is common in hot and dry areas around the world, due to a cheap, abundant and easy access to materials. Today, the use of earthen materials is common in urban and rural areas in developing countries. In Iran earthen materials have partly shaped our architectural culture and identity. Kahgel is one of the oldest traditional plastering and mortars in Iran, which has been used to insulate the roof and facades of buildings from moisture and rainfall. Although the importance of processing and curing mortars and plasters is well known among architecture and building professionals and builders, no research has been conducted on the effect of processing time upon the physical quality and mechanical properties of traditional mortars, especially Kahgel. The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the importance and duration of curing process on the physical and mechanical properties of Kahgel using experimental methods.
Material and As the first step, soil samples were taken from different areas of Isfahan and then these samples were examined using different experimental methods. Then the most appropriate soil sample in terms of physical and mechanical properties was selected. Several samples of Kahgel mortars were produced using the selected soil sample and different percentages of straw fibers. For these kahgel samples the compressive strength, tensile strength, linear shrinkage and cracking were measured to determine the most appropriate combination of selected soil mixed with straw fibers. In the second phase of the study, the type of soil and straw percentage were not changed, while the processing time was considered as an independent variable. The new Kahgel samples were prepared by a variety of processing time and then their compressive strength and tensile strength were measured to examine the effect of the curing time on the mechanical properties of Kahgel.
The results indicate that the compressive strength dropped with increasing straw fiber content and increased with increasing soil content. The results of all the tests indicate that tensile strength of Kahgel increased with increasing straw fiber content up to 6 %, but the higher straw contents decreased tensile strength. The linear shrinkage of samples decreased with increasing straw fiber content. The results showed that the curing time of Kahgel affects its mechanical properties, especially compressive strength and tensile strength. Therefore, the mechanical properties of Kahgel can be improved by increasing the duration of curing time.

In recent decades, “social resilience” and “resilient society” concepts have been rendered integral concerning disaster risk reduction, disaster response as well as Post-Disaster reconstruction programs success with respect to public participation. This study attempts to examine the concept of social resilience and its efficacy in successful reconstruction process after an earthquake. This paper seeks to identify effective factors of social resilience as an indicator in two communities that have been hit by the 1385 Lorestan earthquake in Iran evaluating their social resilience. In addition, it is further investigated whether or not such indicator may contribute to leave out the temporary housing phase, accelerating reconstruction programs after the earthquake. Darb-e-Āstāne and Bābā-Pashmān villages were selected as case studies located in Silakhor plains of Lorestan province. Social capital and unity, social network integrity, social and economic consistency of the communities before the earthquake and finally the severity impact factors are among the key indicators in determining rehabilitation success after an earthquake. These factors also found to be effective in the emergence of resilience in rural communities. The data were collected via documentary research, semi-structured interviews. According to research questions, four hypotheses in the form of four main indicators and eleven sub-indicators such as, level of social resilience, social capital, adaption capacity, success of the reconstruction programs, shock absorption capability, community capacities, the social infrastructures, indigenous knowledge, local skills, and type of reconstruction programs and procedures of responsible organizations were developed. Correspondingly, 23 measures including sense of place, level of trust in others, religion and common beliefs, the ultimate satisfaction of reconstruction, earthquake awareness, public participation in social groups, self-sufficiency in housing etc. These are provided through field survey, site observations as well as in-depth interviews with the people and local authorities and have been put in test by a combination of qualitative and quantitative strategies for data analysis. Based on the results of Community Resilience Capacity researches, the ability to absorb earthquake shocks is integral. This is closely tied with sociological characteristics and norms that are found within indigenous knowledge of Lorestan rural communities as part of the social capital based on the findings of this study. As a result of this study it may be advisable to skip temporary post disaster housing in reconstruction programs for a more efficient and faster recovery. In addition, the procedure of programs and their implementation by the authorities were influenced in formation of social cohesion and relations among affected people. Furthermore, the results of social resilience evaluation of these two villages were estimated to be relatively high and close to each other.

Rural development and strengthening rural housing have been among the major concerns of politicians and planners in Iran, and in this regard various rural development programs have been designed and implemented so far. Rehabilitation and renovation program for rural housing is the latest and one of the most important of such programs in Iran. This program aims at providing at least two hundred thousand sustainable and resistant housing units in rural areas and hence has been one of the most influential contemporary rural development programs in the country. This program has accelerated the evolution of the form and physical characteristics of rural settlements. Aiming at upgrading the quality of rural housing and settlements and enhancing the safety, health and welfare of their residents, this program initially targeted the marginalized groups and its progress was very slow. In recent years, the program has been expanded by including credits and hence its progress has improved quantitatively and qualitatively. Although the program has been a notable achievement in terms of poverty reduction and enhancing safety, it seems to pay little attention to the vernacular housing typologies and patterns in rural settlements . This article evaluates the impacts of this housing program on vernacular housing patterns in Turkmen villages of Soltan Ali district in Gonbad . This analytical-descriptive study is an applied research. The study focuses on households living in the village of Soltan Ali. A sample of 300 households was selected randomly by using the Cochran formula. Data was collected by using questionnaire with the reliability of 0/8 = α, using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Data analysis relied on descriptive statistics, test T-Test, Chi-Square and Comolograph- Smirnov . The findings show that although all residential units that were covered by the program and received a housing loan were built by engineers and architects, 45.3% of them was not built in accordance to the approved plans. By comparing the yard area index, it is observed that the yard area in houses which received a housing loan is almost half of those who did not, which highlights a deviation from the vernacular housing typology of the area. The average area of the residential space of both groups is almost similar with 91.5 and 105.5 square meters in the first and second group, respectively. While in Turkmen vernacular architecture, the built area of the house locates in the middle of the plot, in the newly built houses, these areas locate along streets and alleyways, on the edge of plots. Comparing the height index also shows that while in the vernacular architecture double story houses are rare, they become more popular with mixed residential and commercial uses in newly built housing.
The dominant form and orientation in vernacular houses is a rectangular shape facing south, while the newly built ones -inspired by urban architecture - are square or polygon and sometimes are not facing the sun. The most important negative consequence of the housing program in Turkmen region relates to the limited attention paid to the secondary functions of houses, so that 62.6 per cent of houses with loan and 30.7 percent of those without loan had no space for secondary functions of the house. Another change compared to the vernacular architecture is fencing all around parcels for privacy and safety reasons. Given the technical requirements of housing construction in new houses like the use of double-glazed windows, these units show a 70.60 per cent improvement in terms of energy consumption.

Rural development planning as a mechanism for rural development requires a precise understanding of the needs and condition of rural communities. Combining villages has been one of the policies developed and implemented in post-war reconstruction projects as well as rural development projects in Iran. During the post-war reconstruction period, Shram town plan was developed with the aim of combining three villages namely Hanigarmalah, Kaymneh and Bidarwaz (Kermanshah province). Despite planning initiatives and efforts, villagers either moved to other cities or villages or moved back to their destroyed villages instead of moving to the new town. This study evaluates the economic, socio-cultural, and physical causes of the failure in plans and projects that involve combining villages, focusing on the case of Shram. This evaluation relies on the existing social theoretical frameworks in the literature including theories of participatory rural development as well as scholarly debates on combining rural settlements. Techniques of data gathering adopted in this research include deep interview, field observation as well as document review. Overall 39 interviews with opponents and proponents of Shram town plan as well as local authorities have been conducted. Aside from identifying the causes of the failure of the town plan, this research found that an appropriate planning mechanism and utilizing the capacities of villagers can prepare the ground for developing successful plans and projects of combining rural settlements. On this basis and in order to reach a common understanding and shared points of views between the stakeholders, it is necessary for planners to build positive and constructive relations with villagers. Additionally, unlike current approaches in similar plans and projects, which heavily rely on spatial and physical approaches, it is necessary to pay attention to social, economic and cultural dimensions of such plans and adopt a more holistic approach in planning and implementation.

Iranian-Islamic architecture and urbanity as an approach inherited from traditional uran development present specific patterns of planning and management of Iranian historic cities. Nowadays, these patterns can be observed in traditional cities and villages. These patterns have been always in harmony with local climate, environment and social condition. Some of the settlements with specific spatial patterns that have been shaped according to the local geomorphological constraints present a specific model of settlement. Neighborhood right as one of the basic rights in Iranian-Islamic system have been embedded in all human settlements and observed through traditions, behaviors and principle social codes of conduct.
Oraman Takht village of Kurdistan presents a particular residential pattern where contemporary urban rules and regulations are in conflict with neighborhood rights.. Therefore, this research seeks to answer the following questions: how neighborhood rights can be defined in the context of the interaction between ownership rights and public interests? And, how the process of dealing with “legal conflicts” through “customary agreement” can be conducive to the realization of neighborhood rights?
This research relies on examining the holy Quran as well as contemporary laws and regulations. Adopting a descriptive approach, the paper addresses the research questions using holy Quran teachings and field observations in social and built environment of the Oraman Takht village. Masooleh village in Gilan and Oramannat villlage in Kordistan are presented and analyzed as our case-studies.
The findings of the research determine how customary agreements can present a way for the sustainability of settlement development and observing neighborhood rights. This sustainability can be achieved in the context of conflicts between ownership rights and public interests; This implies that urban laws and regulations and ownership rights cannot - on their own –ensure the sustainable development of social and built environment in settlements like Oraman Takht. Through this traditional process, legal conflict can be addressed through social agreements based on traditional customs of the society
This research also shows that climatic, environmental and social conditions of settlements, creates an environment where social interactions are not formed based on formal codes, and regulations, but on the basis of social customs that balances the interaction between private property rights and public interests. In this traditional process, the legal conflicts are transformed to social agreements. This issue arises not from a gap in laws and regulations, but from the conflicts that arise between private property rights and public interests in private and public places. This conflict cannot be addressed in the domain of formal laws and regulations, but within the common laws of the society. Addressing such conflicts is possible through a shift from “law-based conflict of interests” to “custom-based agreement” for achieving neighborhood rights.

"Chahar Soffeh" is often considered as one of the oldest forms in Iranian residential architecture. The cruciform form, besides its climatic and structural characteristics, reflects spiritual meanings and is repeatedly used in different building designs and typologies. In Iranian architecture, this form goes beyond a mere expression in primitive building typologies and works as a hidden schema underneath the spatial organization of building typologies and creates space typologies like ‘Chahar Eyvani’ (four portals), ‘Chahar Bagh’ (four gardens), ‘Chahar Taghi’(four arched), and so on. A morphological examination of ‘Chahar Soffeh’ as a template in various examples of residential plans can provide us with a systematic understanding of the emergence and development of this template in the Iranian architecture history. Examining various plans of residential buildings, this article identifies the benefits that ‘Chahar Soffeh’ offers as a spatial component of residential architecture. Benefits include: Creating a moderate microclimate in the house in the context of dry climate of deserts; providing a large space despite its small size in the central courtyard; its geometric pattern that is very easy to implement; and finally, offering a space which can accommodate various functions in the central space of the house. Adopting a phenomenological approach in investigating some examples of residential architecture, this research depicts the design process of ‘Chahar Soffeh’, step by step in hypothetical cases. By surveying various patterns of ‘Chahar Soffeh’, the research traces this template not only in ‘Kooshks’ in Iranian Gardens but in ‘Howz-khaneh’, ‘Orosi’ and even in ‘Tehrani rooms’. After investigating various plans of Chahar Soffeh in residential buildings, the article traces the design of Chahar Soffeh to a variety of spaces such as: ‘Howz-Khaneh’ (pool rooms), ‘Orosi-Khaneh‘ (sash house) and even rooms called ‘Shekam Darideh’ and ‘Tehrani’.
In addition to looking at the benefits of ‘Chahar Soffeh’, this article presents the process of the development of this space in different hypothetical residential plans. In this way, this research depicts the design process of ‘Chahar Soffeh’, step by step in hypothetical cases. The findings of this article identifies the main benefits of ‘Chahar Soffeh’ as: Creating a nice balance of sun and shade in an arid climate, providing a wide space in a limited area as well as its geometrical design which facilitates its implementation. ‘Chahar Soffeh’ can be found in cities such as Boshruyeh and Tabas. These cities provide more original cases of a historic house with ‘Chahar Soffeh’, where the residential architecture has an introverted character with a small courtyard at its center and four portals (Ivans) on each side. In Zavvareh, however, houses have a covered central space and are within the process of transformation to larger houses with ‘Howz-Khaneh’ or ‘Kooshks’. Eventually, in courtyard houses of Iran central plateau, ‘Chahar Soffeh’ disappeared from the yard and emerged in spaces like ‘Howz-Khaneh’, ‘Tehrani’ and the like. In any case, ‘Howz-Khaneh’ remains as the main mode of expression of ‘Chahar Soffeh’.