مجله حقوقی دادگستری
پیاپی 90 (تابستان 1394)

Torture is one of the most serious crimes against human rights. From the perspective of Islamic law as well as human rights rules, the reason of its prohibition is insolence to human dignity and integrity. In article 38 of constitution, torture has been forbidden by legal system of Islamic Republic of Iran. The basis of this Article is Islamic law and its international conventions. All religious arguments have absolutely prohibited human's persecution and ill-treatment. Global community also seeks to eradicate this ominous phenomenon. Iranian criminal system has predicted torture as a crime in support of principles of Islamic Republic of Iran's Constitution. Article 578 of Islamic Penal Code has described torture as a crime. This article has weaknesses and shortcomings. Therefore, it cannot support efficiently Article 38 of constitution. Amendment of this article according to the Article 38 of constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran can be an important step towards preventing this crime.

About the nature, meaning and basis of civil Arsh, both in jurisprudence and Iranian law, the debate has broken out, so that some authors considered Arsh as a non-contractual responsibility that difference between value of healthy goods and defective one, only in market price, should be the criteria to calculate amount of Arsh. Some others criticized these comments and believe in this idea that Arsh is compensations and damages that the buyer, due to defect of goods, sustains. In contrast, one group has considered Arsh as reciprocal responsibility that must be paid of the same price. About Arsh it can be said that neither it is non-fungible liability nor reciprocal responsibility and nor reparation and compensation, but it is a way to implement and perform commitments agreed in the contract. When the parties proceed to contract based on the balance of considerations value, if this obligation, for some reasons such as being the object of contract defective, is violated, so this violated commitment should be implemented again. Arsh makes agreed obligation be enforced, in relation to balancing between the value of goods and its consideration. So mutual agreement or compromise is the basis of Arsh, As if contract provisions, and parties commitment is based on the principle of equal value of considerations and seller's responsibility to pay Arsh, is contractual

Being guilty in criminal law is one aspect of criminal proceeding and being prosecuted and punished is another one. In fact, it is on the basis of procedural rules that crime is proved and the offender is sentenced and punished. What is of significant importance in proving the crime and culpability of the accused is 'burden of proof of the crime and the presented defense's in criminal trial. The burden of proof is the answer to the question that which person or authority should prove his claim in criminal trial. What is discussed in here is not the existence of proof but the important is the responsibility and duty to prove it. Should the prosecution undertake the burden of proving his claim, in case of not succeeding in it, the defendant will be acquitted. Conversely, if it is the defendant who should bear the burden of proving his claim, in case of failure to provide adequate and appropriate proof, he will be sentenced. Obviously, the outcome of trial is in close connection with placing the burden of proof upon the defendant or the prosecution. The general rule in criminal prosecution puts the burden of proof of constituting elements of crime on the prosecution. Iranian Constitution considering this important matter has allocated its Article 37 to the 'presumption of innocence' which says: "Innocence is the basic principle. No person is considered legaly guilty, except in cases where his guilt is established in a competent court" and thus the defendant is exempt from proving his innocence. But in respect of the defenses including justifications and excuses, it's the defendant who claims existence of them during the commitment of crime. The question raised here is that in spite of the presumption of innocence, is the burden of proof of the existence of justifications and excuses on the defendant? or is it the duty of the prosecution, as the public authority of prosecution, to prove all elements of crime and absence of all impediments to prosecution and punishment? This question becomes even more important when the new approach of criminal law considering crimes such as economical crimes and security crimes, moves toward limiting the presumption of innocence and wastage of suspected persons rights.

According to article 667 of Iranian civil code, all transactions in which an agent transfers an ownership on behalf of another, He must regard to interest of his principal measure of compliance of interest in respect of the transfer which is transferred to common price or reasonable consideration. This subject should be considered from two points of view: first, the Legal form of agency. Because it maybe conclude as “Limited”, “General” and “Public” forms; however, it should be noted that, In the first kind of agency, the agent cannot exceed of his authority, but in the other types he must regard interest of his principal. Second, consequence of disregard of interest in transfer of property by The Agent. Sometimes, the transfer which is disregarded principal interest by his agent is the only lead to liability of him. Moreover, the contract will be voidable when he has been abusing his power.

The possibility of transaction of future property is studied in this article. The purpose of doing this paper is studying of the bases of nullity of transaction of future property and designing of the general rule for these transactions, and we were encountered to this question that why the famous of jurists and lawyers knew as nullity transaction of future property, and how much the given arguments are valid and also in what cases it is possible to know truth the transaction of future property under a general rule. The result was that transaction of future property has known as nullity mainly because of some Jurisprudential exemplum (called Revayat in Islamic jurisprudence) and the forbidden of belonging of possession of nonexistent and its uncertainty, while there are also some Jurisprudential exemplum indicating the truth of transaction of future property. Moreover, prompt possession is not the inherent prerequisite of possessive contracts and possession takes place after the emersion of the subject of contract. In addition, transaction of future property is not uncertain and should be known as truth, if there is conjecture of creation of the property in the future according to the normal routine of affairs. Therefore, the existence of subject of contract meanwhile of conclusion is not of the main conditions and general rule and is necessary only in the cases which the mind basis of the parties is on the transaction of existent property.

By repealing a law it ceases to be valid and by wich the law's life terminate. In traditional approach abrogation takes in two manners: expressly and impliedly. This Thesis effort is to amend this theory. Abrogation is only express and it takes when legislator specify repealed law. But when judge cannot reconcile between two conflicting laws, his main task is to override one of them.Regarding the purport of laws and argueing pro or con alaw in persuasive manner is exclusive way to proclaim tacit abrogation or predomination of it. Indeed judge has not authority to rescind law. Therefore implied repealing is matter of construction and metaphorical expression. Abrogation takes in four manners: Total, partial, subordinative and relative. By total abrogation legislator repeals abody of laws. Wereas in partial repeal only some sections of a law is abrogated. In subordinate repealing one law is rescineded, ipso facto, in subject to another law. Finally relative abrogation (=derogation) is abolishing of a law, as by subsequent act wich limits its scope