فصلنامه ذهن
سال نوزدهم شماره 4 (پیاپی 76، زمستان 1397)

Richard Swinburne on justification believe in synchronic justification, justification by adequate grounds. One of his epistemic positions gain probable belief. He claims that a belief being justified is spelled out as it being probable. The more probability belief, the truer belief. At first Swinburne distinguish three types of probability:physical probability, statistical probability and inductive probability. Logical, epistemic and subjective probability is three types of inductive probability. Actually logical probability is ruling epistemic and subjective probability. Swinburne expresses criteria for logical probability based on tow patterns downward inference and upward inference. The criterion of simplicity based on upward inference is the principle of efficiency for selection more probable hypothesis. Applying the principle of simplicity in bayes's theorem, propositions with intrinsic probability, probability of predictions, the principle of indifference and testimony, he reply to paradox of probable and problems that are in these propositions. Swinburne's view on probability epistemic faces problems. He equal Partial implicate with degree of rational of belief or hypothesis. Also, the criterion of simplicity is very important for the role of agent in choosing the two sides of the probability, which Swinburne's suggest for minimizing the role of causality faces problems.

In the interpretive approach of Allamah Tabataba'i, awareness is one of the key words. Awareness in the epistemological discussions is the title which refers to the set of cognitive tools of the kmower. This article has been designed to clarify Allama's interpretive approach in explaining this concept. It is possible to discover his epistemological system by discovering Allama's view on epistemic topics. Thus we chose the term " awareness " as one of the epistemological vocabulary and analyzed his interpretive view. In a general division, the awareness can be divided into human and inhuman awareness. Allameh Tabataba'i has paid more attention to human awareness in the interpretation of al- Mizan and examines various aspects of this type of awareness, such as definition, types, features, effects and origins. Human awareness is the precise perception that its source is the human's extra body heart. In the view of Allamah Tabataba'i, the awareness has different types:intellectual, innate, inner, soul, reasonable, and awareness to material pleasures. They provide features for awareness, like "having principles, bases, tools and criterion, the sign of existence, it is a appearance blessing and human' acts, awareness becomes degenerate. The awareness plays a very important role in his viewpoint, because the failure of awareness is equal to death and the invalidation of humanity. In Allameh's view, in addition to man, other creatures, such as Angels, Paradise, Hell, Earth and Animals, have some kind of awareness.

Gadamer's philosophical foundations and his conception of key concepts such as being, truth, understanding , meaning, human, and so on, derived from Heidegger's philosophical ideas. Gadamer initially founded the philosophical hermeneutics in a new way in the humanities
based on Heidegger's philosophy versus the Dilthey’s way in the humanities. Therefore, his thoughts at this stage are completely cognitive as in the second chapter of his book, Truth and Method. In this stage he never claims to enter the methods of interpretive sciences in receiving the author's intention. But , he believed , these methods are right in their place. Therefore , he introduced the start point of his hermeneutics just after applying these methods. But in the following, in the third part of his book, and in his article titled " The Universality of the Hermeneutical Problem", contradictory, in spite of his first opinion,he criticized and paid an audit the methods of interpretive sciences in receiving the author's intention as the meaning of text. It seems that this contradiction was due to a departure from the original  goal .In addition, Heidegger's philosophy was not competent to work in this field and was not designed for it.

The skepticism, which is believing in the impossibility of objective knowledge, has reappeared in different paradigms of the history of philosophy with a different faces. Although the skepticism itself has produced a lot of destructive results, and at some points in history has had a tremendous negative impact on philosophy, it must be acknowledged that the it also helped philosophy in having a more thorough understanding of epistemology. One of the criticisms that ancient Greek skeptics have raised which helped the establishing of skepticism is the  "impotence of sense and reason of perception". Mulla  Sadra has tried to address this criticism of ancient Greek skeptics; he has entangled the error of the senses into common sense and solving the error of imagination with wisdom. He also solved the problem of reason by referring to the "principle of non-contradiction" and the recurrence of the acquired knowledge to knowledge with presence. In the next step, the authors discussed the Tabatabai’s view the status of error and the "principle of non-contradiction", and ultimately analyzed the responses of Mulla Sadra and Tabatabai.

Epistemological foundations play a fundamental role in schools of thought, and often the difference between ideas and theories arises from those bases, and therefore their processing is necessary. The purpose of this article is to seek out the epistemological foundations of social
justice, with emphasis on the Holy Qur'an. In the hypothesis, it has been emphasized that the epistemological foundations of social justice can be found in cases such as the applicability and immortality of justice, the ability of reason, and the possibility of recognizing some examples
of social justice, confirming the rational and natural understanding of human beings from justice and epistemic sources of understanding that With wisdom and religious observation, this has been traced through an analytical-descriptive method and reference to the logic and literature of the Holy Qur'an and the benefit of the reason of reason.

One of the practical sciences used in Quranic researches, is semantics. In this research, the word ‘nutq’ as one of the instances of Quran’s referring to language faculty in human beings, is studied. The point is that, although linguists who work on Arabiac words believe that this word and its derivations are only used for human beings, in Quran it is used for both humans and non-humans. In order to study this specific use in Quran language, all examples of the word was extracted and the data was analyzed in the framework of conceptual blending. The results indicate that the word is used for non-humans in order to close the mind to abstract concepts via the objective and concrete concepts.

The issue of evil is always a pseudo-belief. The identity of evil and its relation to suffering is informed of providing an approach to this belief dilemma. Qur'an presents the phenomenon of evil in various verses. one can find the evil ontology in the Quran, by analyzing the semantic fields of the companion words of the evil in the Quran. The analysis of the Qur'anic words has several ways in which semantic fields are a novel method for this purpose. Though various solutions have been proposed for this issue, But the revelation of this issue, as a serious new suspicionin the belief, needs a new and deep look at this issue. This article intend to explain the nature of evil and to analyzing the worldview of the Quran about evil and its relation to the difficulty, to emphasize the companion words of the evil. The verses of Qur'an calls some difficult phenomena the good and introduce some of benefits the evil, therefore, from the point of view of Quran, there is no equality between the difficulty and the evil. In the view of Quran, the good or evil of the phenomenon is related to the effects and results of that phenomenon. The Quran introduces the test as one of existential wisdom the evil. Ignorance makes it possible for man to regard good as evil or evil as good.

Hume presented his theory about the origin of religion, regarding his empiricist epistemology. But some internal conflicts, undermines this theory, so the theory is devoid of cohesion and strength. Accordingly,  in this paper, we first explain the origin of religion in Hume’s point of view, and after that, we scrutiny the effect of Hume's epistemology on the theory. We criticize it in two ways; first, internal critique based on the paradox of Hume’s epistemic basis and his opinion about the origin of religion. The next part of internal critique is methodological problems. After all, we identify, firstly, the very high influence of Hume’s epistemology on his view about origin of religion; secondly, the best criticisms are those that focuse on epistemological basis of his view; thirdly, Hume’s point of veiw (on the matter), does not have the necessary cohesion.