مجله منظر
پیاپی 34 (بهار 1395)

"The Persian garden of Dampezeshki (veterinary)" is the second experience of Nazzar Consulting Co. in the design of urban parks based on the principles of Persian garden .In this project, the design group were in search for a new reading of the Persian garden, so while using a variety of patterns from it and emphasizing on historical perception, they will offer a new model adapted to the social dimension of the plan. In this paper, different policies and principles that have been considered in the design of the garden are noted and described in detail and the influential design principles of Landscape architecture is described in the design of Dampezeshki Persian garden.

The present research with historical and epistemological dimensions, firstly studies the perception of urban landscape and its position in environmental interventions and also as a tool for analyzing the city during three temporal periods from 1960 till 1980; then by surveying the works in the fields of photography and cinema, studies the position of artistic visualization in urban landscape. This research is based on three groups of documents: The first group includes professional journals (architecture, urbanism, landscape) and several textbooks and dissertations; the second group is a collection of landscape design projects on which design cases have been identified; finally, two photographic collections and a selection of films made between 1957 and 1974. Photography and cinema are perfect indicants for the position of image in urban landscape via various ways such as landscape documentation and reading, developing creativity, playing a role as a tool for increasing people’s participation and also making the city readable for the unprofessional population. The study of the connection between these artistic methods with professional fields in urbanism and landscape is an important step in the understanding of urban landscape history.

The "gap between knowledge and practice" is a known challenge. Especially in fields like Landscape Architecture and urbanism which are closely related to profession, this challenge has high priority. This gap has two main reasons in third world countries. First reason is about the production of knowledge which is unrelated to the needs of the country. Second reason is about the weakness in applying produced knowledge for practice.
In developed countries, this challenge is somewhat brought under control. In landscape architecture profession, LAF is one of the most known foundations which have programs to face this challenge. Although today we know that using an exact same program as a copy for a country like Iran is not necessarily useful, but as a part of a solution, theirs experience and program must be studied. So the main question of this paper is "what is the main program of LAF to bridge the gap between knowledge and practice? What is the role of "case study" on this program? In what areas, "case study" is useful?
Findings show that "case study" is the main core of LAF’s "research" programs. This main core beside "scholarship" and "Leadership" programs of LAF produced six beneficial areas. These six areas are "Teaching", "Research", "Practice", "Theory building", "Criticism", "Communication and Outreach". This paper summarizes definition, benefits, limitations and a method for landscape case study which is proposed by Mark Francis for LAF.

Landscape may be made up of both physical and geographical features but they are also constituted through perceived experiences. We construct landscape through imagination as much as through vision. We also inhabit and cultivate our environment and transform it into multifaceted cultural landscapes.
Wars transform these cultural landscapes both physically and mentally, and with dramatic consequences. Evidence is visible not only in the mental constructions of landscape (in ideas, concepts, texts, images, or maps), but also in the physical landscape itself: traces and material witnesses of war are manifold.
Remaining structures and objects such as battlefields, front lines, walls, or fortifications have been either transformed into heritage sites or closed off as prohibited zones. War graves, cemeteries, and memorials were built to bury the dead and to commemorate countless lost lives. War gardening programs were initiated to counteract scarcity of food and depression at home. Camouflage landscapes created invisibility and devastated areas called for restoration. Even in Switzerland, said to be a land of peace and plenty, we can find traces of war landscapes and land used for defense.
Evidence is also given in theoretical approaches to landscape. The term "sense of place" is a key concept that focuses on behavioral and emotional approaches and attitudes toward spatial settings and landscapes. It highlights the love for landscape but also points to fear and danger as determining elements. After all, the direct experience of war has greatly influenced landscape perception and reflection, as is visible in the work of both the German sociologist Kurt Lewin and the US-American landscape historian John Brinkerhoff Jackson.
In this paper1, I will focus on how war shapes landscapes and informs our understanding and perception of landscape. I will first discuss landscape perception in the context of fear and danger and then I will present exemplary war-related structures and practices of shaping the landscape, some of which persist to this very day.

A review on a relation between flowers and the war memorials shows strong and multi-dimensional integration.
Focusing on the establishment and the essential purpose that memorials serve, this paper reviews three twentieth-century social movements as case studies, which directly involved the public ground and the use of landscape ephemera, particularly flowers, in response to war: The WWI war shrine-, the WWI war-gardening, and Vietnam War-era “flower power” movement—one to mourn the loss of war, one to support the war, and one to protest the war. At the end the paper notes that recalling flowers in certain purposes may be an answer for the new generation of war memorial in the recent universal front.

War and conflict are one of the dark sides of mankind experiences and are one of the bitterest ones which sometimes seem to be inevitable despite of many attempts to prevent them. This paper aims to discover the war as phenomena and in this way have considered the landscape as not only the setting for the occurrence of conflict but also as a production that helps us to have a realistic perception of war. In such an approach exchanging experiences and concepts of the conflict would be more possible. This study makes a distinction between War and Conflict and argues that there is a dialectical relation between landscape and conflict in which its production in deferent conditions creates and recreates many kinds of "Conflict Landscape". These categories have been defined in qualitative strategy with an inductive approach.
Accordingly, fore type of landscape of conflict defined and recommended: "Prewar landscape of conflict", "war landscape of conflict" (also could be named as landscape of war of Battlefield landscape), "Post-war landscape of conflict".
There are two important concepts in this categorization; first is the concept of landscape Value and the second is the Changeable Ability of Landscape. The first concept is important in the sense of identifying and conserving any kinds of conflict landscape and it needs contextual and interdisciplinary approaches. The second one shows the capability of landscape for converting to and changing from one kind to the other one. For instance, War landscape of conflict can change into post-war landscape of conflict and / or postwar landscape of conflict can experience all of the types during the process of completion and evolution. In this sense, the final condition of landscape will be the frame of reference. From this kind of view considering the Final position of the landscape and having a continuous monitoring checklist for taking any necessary actions, is essential for preservation of these landscapes.

War is not a pleasant phenomenon that it’s remembrance for society would be desirable. But beyond the dark and bitter aspects of each war, there are also white aspects to notice and even remind it to new generations. Undoubtedly every battle has faced prowess, sacrifice and patriotism of the people who devoted their lives for these values. In this case, the remembrance of war in format of memorials should bold memories of these people, evocative places and innate and human values related to war.
War memorials as symbols in daily life of new generations, are supposed to keep the memories of war alive. But how these symbols should be? Is the straight expression of a war artwork, for example a statue of a fighter, a good answer to matter of “remembrance”?
Various examples have been performed with this theme all over the world. This article studies these examples and tries to find a correct answer through them for this question.
The results of the study indicate that on the subject of war memorials, we encounter a spectrum that on one side has realistic and museum view and on the other, metaphorical and abstract view. Although realism communicates faster with audiences, permanence of artwork in audience’s mind would be low because of its simplicity. On the opposite side, memorials which have more complicated layers and are interpretable would perform better as a memorial artwork though they may be infirm at initial attraction for audiences.
Therefore it seems that war memorials corresponding to epic aspects and national values must be presented by allegorical and metaphorical expression and the works that are associated with remembering memories can use realistic expression. Surveying examples states that choosing the proper approach to the subject of memorial, would be more successful at attracting audiences and transferring message to new generation.

The numerous wars such as the war against Russia in Qajar era, the World War II in Pahlavi era and the 8-year war against Iraq in the Islamic Republic of Iran are experiences that the contemporary Iran has tasted its flavor. On the other hand, the experience of existing urban sculpture in contemporary Tehran brings this question to mind that how the urban sculpture as a form of art, could reflect the war experience? And what approaches has been emerged in artworks over the representation of the war issue in different periods?
This article is based on a documentary research that, the statues have been discussed as a document. According to the historical documents and books, a total of 47 dated sculptures related to the war issue from the Qajar era up to 1389SH. were studied.
The results of this study showed that Tehran's sculptures can be divided into two main sections, "Qajar to the Islamic Revolution" and "Islamic Revolution to 2010". In the first section due to the much experiences and significant raids into the country, war is comprehended as the general definition means "aggression". Therefore, the government policy through the urban sculptures located in the squares - as a state element- is trying to project the military power; from the cannons, as the first examples, to the cavalry bodies of King. On the other side, the revolutionary concepts following the Constitutional Revolution (Mashrouteh) such as justice and freedom are also reflected in the mythical forms of fight in the square. In the second section, the Islamic Revolution caused another interpretation of the signified war; so that the war was interpreted as the Sacred Defense, and the myth-making, heroism and the revolutionary concepts and values had been targeted; Making the status and figurative sculpture of martyrs as a tribute to the heroes of the Sacred Defense, monuments and abstract sculptures of concepts such as martyrdom, resistance and courage, both in public (parks, squares, streets) and non-public (highway) spaces have been installed.

It is generally essential to study the monumental spaces as the presence of humans in the environment leads to the creation of social environments and builds identity of the city. Due to the importance of the concept of war and the role of the people or the government, the concept of the martyr and its reflection on the art of has been discussed. It includes the construction of memorials of anonymous martyr, and the Unknown Soldier. The artistic representations of warfare, is a common practice in different countries.
One of the most destructive wars in the 21st century could be considered as, the Iraq attack to Iran. It is recalled in Iran with the name of the holy war that took place over eight- years. In the Arab societies it is named as Saddam’s Qadisiyah and the first Persian Gulf War. In Iran-Iraq war Iranian people were in the defensive aspect of the war and the other is humanity aspect. Probably it explains why the concept behind this war is not rooted in the materialistic issues and it created a rich literature. So significant differences in the definition of war among Iranian and Iraqis concept of war, in spite of their social and historical similarities exists. It further suggests two different point of view and two approaches to the martyr's memorial. The present paper evaluates some samples of anonymous Martyrs Monuments in Iran and Iraq and also attempts to show how recreating the epic memories and pride of a nation has an important role in connecting the cultural memory of the people for subsequent generations. This study compares the characteristics of Martyrs Monuments in Iran with Iraq and shows how different point of views may make a difference in the appearances, symbols and content of the monuments of war in two countries, defender and attacker. Considerable difficulty in the Iranian martyrs memorials is the lack of expertise in perspective and low attention to the potential of urban suitable spaces in the audience, although despite the technical weaknesses, they are enduring and significant due to their popularity . During time it can improve and strengthen the relationship with environment and daily life. In contrast the monuments of martyrs of Iraq, despite the superior physical features, are not as impressive as their counterparts in Iran.

After 8 years of the holy defense of Iran against invasion of Iraq, a new genre in art named “Art of holly defense” has been emerged which visualizes bravery, perseverance, patriotism and self-devotion of people against invaders . This area of the art in the field of architecture has been presented in design of museums as well as museum-gardens. Such museums could be found in many cities to showcase the war, warrior’s memorabilia as well as the battle scenes in both conceptual and realistic ways. Khorramshahr cultural center of holy defense that was constructed on 1996 and Tehran garden-museum of holy defense that was built on 2006, are two important examples of such museums. The comparative analysis of two projects shows that cultural center of Khorramshahr -with minimum of taking advantages of technocrats and low cost in construction- is more successful than urban project of museum-garden of holy defense in Tehran -with maximum of taking advantages of technocrats and high cost- in representing self-devotion and essence of war between Iran and Iraq.
Now it’s the question; why museum-garden of holy defense in Tehran couldn’t succeed as it was expected in the other hand what factors led Khorramshahr cultural center of holy defense to be a successful project?

In recent decades, monuments and works in relation with war and martyrdom have had different effects on urban landscape. Although, creating monumental buildings in Iran has a long rich history, but the diversity of approaches and types of creating such landscapes in modern era and the efforts to increase innovation in these designs, has resulted in production of various works which do not meet the requirements in many cases. In this study we have tried to identify the most successful approaches and patterns at the viewpoint of functionality, identity and aesthetic design, in addition to evaluating the efforts and programs of Martyr Foundation and Veterans Affairs. Accordingly, after studying different samples in a cross-sectional study method using documentary analysis and identifying ways to design monumental works, the methods were analyzed and evaluated based on the general criteria in designing, layouts and features of historical monuments and also surveying experts in relevant fields. The results highlighted significant points in relation to approaches and the success of efforts in creating urban monumental landscapes and revealed the importance of the success factors namely components of audience-oriented approach, also attractiveness and connection with daily activities.

Revolution related art, the holy defense and related concepts have dedicated an important part of the Iranian contemporary art to themselves during the past three decades. Iraj Eskandari, painter and academic member of The Tehran university of Arts, is one of the prolific contemporary artists in Iran; his works are blended with the experience of life during wartime and reflects a set of realistic, semiotic and semantic approaches. Iraj Eskandari reviewed his works and achievements of 3 decades in the art of revolution and the holy defense in a one-day conference of war and landscape on the 16th of May 2016. The following is a brief part of his speech and in fact is a monograph of this artistic life and his 30 year activities.

In the seventh series of conferences of The Phenomenology of Urban Landscape entitled as "War and Urban Landscape", the professional round-table was held on May 27 2016, at the Museum of Contemporary Arts in Tehran, by the presence of Annemarie Bucher, professor and senior researcher at the University of Zurich, Seyed Amir Mansouri, the head of landscape architecture department at University of Tehran and Mr. Eskandar Yarnasab, the general director of cultural advertising of Martyr Foundation and Veterans Affairs.