فصلنامه تاریخ اسلام
پیاپی 26 (تابستان 1385)

This paper intends to critique and review “A Study in the Definition of the Science of History”, an article by Dr. Molla’i-ye Tavani published in issue 22 of the “History of Islam Quarterly”. In his article, the writer has presented thirteen qualities for the science of history and then based on those qualities has presented a particular definition for the science of history.This paper briefly states those thirteen qualities at first and then critiques them under the three headings of “the Subject Matter of History”, “the Science of History”, and “Methodology in History”. Subsequently, the critique arrives at the conclusion that the definition given by Dr. Molla’i is merely a definition for “analytical history” and does not encompass other types of the science of history. Hence, it can not be accepted as “The Definition “for the science of history. In addition, the two topics of “the Subject Matter of History” and “Methodology in History” have been mistakenly brought up under the heading of “the Definition of History”.

In order to depict a relatively clear and at the same time realistic picture of the political, social, cultural, and economic conditions of the Muslim World in the first century A.H.; it is necessary to conduct researches on the influential Muslim personalities of that period. Malik ibn al-Harith an-Nakha‘‘i better known as Malik al-Ashtar was one of the influential and prominent noblemen of the city of Kufah. Though he resided in the city during the rules of ‘Umar (following the foundation of Kufah in 17 A.H.),’Uthman, and ‘Ali (A); his influence and impact on the events and developments of the Muslim World was not of equal weight during all these three periods.This paper intends to analyze Malik’s role and position in the events of this important 20-year period.

The Fatimid rise to power coincided with the spread of their influence and territorial expansion into Abbasid controlled regions, and the inclination of the Muslim populace towards them. As a result, the Abbasid caliphate was alarmed by the rising power of the Fatimids and decided to confront the new phenomenon. However, since the Buyids had taken control of the Abbasid seat of government at this time, the caliphs in Baghdad had practically lost all real power to the Buyids and held only nominal positions. That is why during the caliphate of al-Muti‘ andat-Taye‘ that witnessed the peak of Buyid power, they were not able to launch any serious efforts against the Fatimid encroachment upon their domain. However, during the caliphate of al-Ghadir-u-billah, the Ghaznavids had come to play an active role on the political scene in Baghdad; and in accordance with their pro-Abbasid religious zeal, they paved the way for al-Ghadir and caliphs after him to take action against the Fatimids.This article takes up the issue of extensive propaganda launched by the Abbasids of Baghdad against the Fatimids of Egypt in brief, in particular between the years 381 to 512 A.H.

Using historical and geographical sources, this article deals with the geographical dispersion of the Shi‘ah in Iran before the Mongol invasion, at the time of the invasion, and finally during the Ilkhanid rule up until their fall. While special stress is put on the developments of these particular eras, note should be taken that other sources can be used to shed greater light on this issue as well.

The Baktashiyeh (Baktashid) is one of the major Sufi fraternities (tarighats) in Anatolia. Its founder Haj Baktash-e Vali migrated to Anatolia from Khorasan in the first half of the 7th century A.H. His arrival in Anatolia coincided with the rise of the Babaids, something that gave rise to the possibility that Haj Baktash, the caliph of Baba Elyas-e Khorasani, was the real leader of that uprising. Avoiding military confrontation with the Rum Sultanate, Haj Baktash followed the intellectual path of the Babaids. Adopting such diverse elements as pre-Islamic Turkic religious beliefs, prevalent Sufi thought in Anatolia, Christianity, etc., he founded a school that transformed into one of the official Sufi fraternities during the Ottoman era and even expanded its spiritual influence over the elite Janissary corps. Later on, the Baktashiyeh came under the influence of Sufi trends such as the Horufieh and ideas propagated by the Safaviyeh (Safavid) Sufi Sheykhs.

The Safavid period is often regarded as the era characterized by heightened sectarian differences between Iran and the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, history also demonstrates leafs of unity, coexistence, and friendship between the two Muslim states. Following the signing of the Zahab Treaty (1049 A.H.; 1639 C.E.) between Shah Safi of Iran and the Ottoman Sultan Murad IV, the Ottomans abandoned their hostile policies towards Iran. Consequently, the effect of sectarian animosity, which was a factor of constant conflict between the two sides, subsided to a certain degree.During the Afsharid period, Nader Shah of Iran fought the Ottomans for several years before he came to realize it was best to work for peace and reconciliation between Muslims. To bring about reconciliation between the Shi‘ah and the Sunnah he organized the “Najaf Religious Society” in 1156 A.H. In that deliberative congress, great Iraqi Shi‘i and Sunni ‘ulama’ (scholars) from the cities of Najaf, Karbala’, Baghdad, Kadhimiyah, and Hillah participated next to scholars from Iran, Afghanistan, and Bukhara.

This paper deals with the military organization and structure of the Buyid rulers in Iraq and Iran. From the writer’s viewpoint, the expansionist policy of the Buyids, which was based on their military power, and the diverse make of their military manpower are two of the major factors in the evolution of the Buyid military force. This research includes meticulous and scholarly descriptions_ based on firsthand historical sources_ of the military equipment and armaments of that period, the military strategies and tactics of the army, the review of the troops by the king and top commanders, the salary and wage system for the soldiers and commanders, and the organization of the Buyid military forces in comparison with the neighboring states’ and those before and after them.The transfer of fiefs to military-men in exchange for their services, especially during times of financial hardship, has also been extensively addressed in this work.