فهرست مطالب
فصلنامه رفاه اجتماعی
پیاپی 71 (زمستان 1397)
- تاریخ انتشار: 1397/12/10
- تعداد عناوین: 8
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صفحات 9-44مقدمهمهم ترین هدف توسعه، تلاش برای کاهش فقر هست که می تواند با رشد اقتصادی و / یا توزیع درآمد تحقق یابد. موضوعات مرتبط با تسهیم منافع رشد به فقرا، اولویت سیاستهای توسعه از دهه 1990 بوده است. اجماع صورت گرفته این است که رشد به تنهایی یک ابزار کند برای کاهش فقر است و نیز سیاستهای توزیعی و بازتوزیعی درآمد و دارایی (ثروت) به طور فزاینده ای اهمیت یافته اند.روشدر این مقاله رابطه متقابل رشد اقتصادی، نابرابری و فقر طی سالهای برنامه های دوم تا پنجم توسعه ایران (1995-2016) موردبررسی قرار گرفته است. به این منظور با استفاده از مفهوم رشد حامی فقرا، این مطالعه آزمون می کند در چه دوره ای فقرا از رشد اقتصادی منتفع شده اند و توزیع ثمرات رشد اقتصادی چگونه بوده است. سنجه مورداستفاده، «نرخ رشد معادل فقر» است که هم میزان رشد و هم چگونگی منافع رشد توزیع شده میان فقرا و غیر فقرا را به حساب می آورد. این متدلوژی بر اساس تئوری اتکینسون، ارتباط منحنی لورنز تعمیم یافته و تغییرات در فقر را شرح می دهد.یافته هابرآوردهای سنجه نرخ رشد معادل فقر نشان داد نرخ رشد میانگین هزینه کل در دو برنامه دوم و سوم توسعه در مناطق شهری، حامی فقرا بوده است که در دو برنامه چهارم و پنجم توسعه تداوم نداشت و دلالت بر این دارد که فقر در طی این دو برنامه، افزایش یافته است و در طی برنامه پنجم فقرا به طور نسبی بیشتر از غیر فقرا آسیب دیده اند. روند این سنجه در مناطق روستایی طی برنامه های توسعه موردبررسی همان روند مناطق شهری است.بحثنتایج نشان داد با وجود اجرای پنج برنامه توسعه، سیاستهای کاهش فقر به صورت یک برنامه استراتژیک پایدار در طول برنامه های توسعه به کار گرفته نشده است و استفاده از درآمدهای نفتی برای حل مسئله فقر به صورت پروژه درمانی بدون توجه به مسئله رشد و توسعه باعث شده که فقر ازیک طرف به تعویق افتاده و از طرف دیگر بازگشت فقر در دوران بعدی با وسعتی بیشتر صورت گیرد. چنانکه در سالهای اخیر با کندشدن روند رشد اقتصادی، فقر با شدت بیشتری به جامعه بازگشته است و درنتیجه همراه و همزاد بودن پدیده فقر و توسعه نیافتگی اقتصاد در کشور بروز و ظهور بیشتری داشته است.کلیدواژگان: توزیع درآمد، رشد حامی، فقر، فقرا، نابرابری
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صفحات 45-83مقدمهنابرابری جنسیتی در اشتغال جوانان یکی از چالش های بازار کار در کشورهای جهان است. این پدیده در اشکال مختلف به صورت میزان دستیابی به مشاغل تمام وقت و پاره وقت، رسمی و غیررسمی، تفاوت در دستمزد و امنیت شغلی دیده می شود. پژوهش حاضر، به بررسی عوامل موثر بر روی برابری جنسیتی در اشتغال جوانان جهت اعمال سیاستهای موردنیاز برای کاهش سطح تبعیض جنسیتی و افزایش مشارکت زنان در بازار نیروی کار برخی کشورهای درحال توسعه پرداخته است. در این راستا از مدل پنل بیزین برای بررسی شدت و نوع اثرگذاری متغیرهای مدل بر روی برابری جنسیتی در اشتغال جوانان در طی دوره زمانی 2016-1990 استفاده شده است. نتایج حاصل از برآورد مدل نشان می دهد تولید ناخالص داخلی، برابری جنسیتی در آموزش ابتدایی، سرمایه گذاری مستقیم خارجی، دموکراسی، شاخص جهانی سازی سیاسی، مخارج دولت، سرمایه گذاری داخلی، سهم جمعیت شهری، سهم زنان از جمعیت، رشد جمعیت، تعداد کاربران موبایل به عنوان متغیر جانشین زیرساخت در بخش فناوری اطلاعات و ارتباطات و کشورهای صادرکننده نفتی دارای اثرگذاری منفی بر روی برابری جنسیتی در اشتغال جوانان هستند. در میان متغیرهای نام برده اثرگذاری رشد جمعیت، سرمایه گذاری داخلی و خارجی حائز اهمیت است. از سوی دیگر، رشد اقتصادی، برابری جنسیتی در آموزش متوسطه، تجارت باز، تعداد کاربران اینترنت، نرخ بیکاری، دین اسلام و مسیحی دارای اثرگذاری مثبت بر روی برابری جنسیتی در اشتغال بوده اند. بنابراین، حفظ توازن در رشد جمعیت، جلوگیری از سرمایه گذاری داخلی در پروژه های ناکارآمد، ایجاد بسترهای مناسب جهت آموزش عالی زنان، استفاده از اینترنت برای به روزرسانی مهارت زنان و ایجاد فرصت های شغلی آنان، محدود کردن وابستگی به بخش نفتی به عنوان بخشی مردانه و درنهایت افزایش رشد اقتصادی در کشورهای درحال توسعه و ایران می تواند به استفاده بیشتر از سرمایه انسانی در زنان و کاهش نابرابری جنسیتی منجر شود.کلیدواژگان: اشتغال جوانان، برابری جنسیتی، عوامل تعیین کننده، میانگین گیری مدل بیزین، ایران
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صفحات 85-134مقدمهبا رشد شتابان جمعیت شهری کشورهای درحال توسعه، حاشیه نشینی به عنوان یکی از معضلات و مسائل اجتماعی دامن گیر مدیریت شهری این کشورها شده است. در ایران نیز، حاشیه نشینی به عنوان یک چالش فراگیر در بسیاری از شهرها و کلان شهرها خودنمایی کرده است.روشروش مورد استفاده در این پژوهش مرور نظام مند است و این فرصت را مهیا می سازد که با مداقه در اهداف، سوالات، روش شناسی، چارچوب نظری و سایر ویژگی های مطالعات منتخب یک بررسی توصیفی و تحلیلی از آن ها انجام گردد. در چارچوب این روش و در گام نخست، واژه «حاشیه نشینی» و سایر واژگان نزدیک به آن از نظر معنایی مانند «آلونک نشینی» «اسکان غیررسمی» و «سکونت گاه های غیرقانونی» در کتابخانه ها، مراکز و بانک های علمی فارسی مورد جستجو قرار گرفتند و پس از اتمام جستجو مرتبط ترین مطالعات با اهداف تحقیق انتخاب شدند. معیارهای ورود مطالعات شامل انجام پژوهش در کشور ایران، انتشار مطالعه به زبان فارسی و تمام متن بودن آنها، بود. معیارهای خروج از مطالعه نیز محدود به دسترسی نداشتن به متن کامل مطالعه (مقاله)، عدم تمرکز بر کلیدواژگان مورد بررسی محقق و عدم برخورداری از چارچوب نظری واضح و مشخص بود.یافته هاتلاش های صورت گرفته در زمینه مطالعه حاشیه نشینی را می توان در چند موضوع زیر دسته بندی کرد: 1) پژوهش هایی که سعی در تبیین عوامل موثر بر شکل گیری حاشیه نشینی داشته اند و بر عوامل جاذبه و دافعه شهری و روستایی و همچنین تکانه های تحول آفرین موثر بر این موارد تمرکز کرده اند. 2) پژوهش هایی که متمرکز بر شرایط گذران زندگی حاشیه نشینان بودند و التفاتی به شناسایی و کشف عوامل موثر در پیدایش این وضعیت نداشتند. در این پژوهش ها وضعیت محلات حاشیه نشین از یک سو از نظر سلامت و بهداشت و از سوی دیگر با تمرکز بر شاخص های اجتماعی و اقتصادی کیفیت زندگی مورد توجه و بررسی قرار گرفته است. 3) دسته سوم از مطالعات انجام شده با محوریت سیاست های ساماندهی و مدیریت محلات حاشیه نشین از منظر فضایی-کالبدی و رفاه و تامین اجتماعی قابل رصد است. 4) طیف دیگری از پژوهش های انجام شده در زمینه حاشیه نشینی بر پیامدها مترکز بودند. در بیشتر این پژوهش ها پیشفرض این بود که مناطق حاشیه نشین بستر مناسبی برای جرم هستند و بروز انواع آسیب های اجتماعی در آن ها محتمل است. شمار اندکی از این مطالعات نیز به افزایش تعداد جمعیت و برهم خوردن تعادل محلات حاشیه نشین پرداخته اند.بحثمرور نظام مند پژوهش های انجام شده در دو دهه گذشته در حوزه حاشیه نشینی و از سوی محققان رشته های مختلف از جمله جامعه شناسی، جغرافیا و مدیریت نشان می دهد کنکاش پیرامون این شکل اسکان نتوانسته است شرایط موثر بر شکل گیری آن، استراتژی های افراد ساکن در این محلات و پیامدهای زیست در این محلات را به وضوح روشن سازد.کلیدواژگان: ابعاد اجتماعی و فرهنگی حاشیه نشینی، حاشیه نشینی، مرور نظام مند
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صفحات 135-182مقدمهمسکن پدیده ای اجتماعی است و انتظام و نوع فضاها و همچنین فرم ظاهری آن از عوامل فرهنگی، اجتماعی و اقتصادی تاثیر می پذیرد و بر آن تاثیر می گذارد. این یکی از موضوعات اصلی سیا ستگذاری اجتماعی برای کاهش نابرابری اجتماعی می باشد. طرح تولید انبوه مسکن ارزان برای گروه های کم درامد در قالب مسکن اجتماعی، یکی از برنامه های محوری دولت نهم برای برقراری عدالت اجتماعی و کمک به گروه های محروم شهری است که در دولت دهم و یازدهم ادامه یافته است. لذا پژوهش حاضر با ایمان به اینکه اجرای مسکن مهر آثار و پیامدهای مثبت و منفی فراوانی در پی داشته است به آسیب شناسی مسکن اجتماعی (مهر) با رویکرد نابرابری طبقاتی و انحرافات شهری تبریز، با هدف کاربردی تصحیح و جبران نقاط ضعف برنامه ریزی و اجرای مسکن اجتماعی می پردازد.
روشپژوهش حاضر به لحاظ هدف کاربردی و به لحاظ زمانی، چون به یک برهه زمانی خاص مربوط است؛ مقطعی می باشد. از نظر گردآوری داده ها یک بررسی پیمایشی- میدانی است. ابزار جمع آوری اطلاعات پرسشنامه بسته از نوع محقق ساخته می باشد. گزینش نمونه بر اساس روش خوشه ایچند مرحله ای خواهد بود. جامعه آماری تحقیق شامل 503816 خانوار (مجموع خانوارهای ساکن در مسکن مهر سهند و خانوارهای تبریزی ساکن در سایر انواع مسکن) می باشد. برای نمونه گیری، حجم نمونه بر اساس فرمول کوکران معادل 1075 خانوار محاسبه گردید. شیوه گزینش بر اساس خوشه ایچند مرحله ای می باشد. نظریه ی های غالب پژوهش، شامل ((رویکرد محرومیت اجتماعی، تفکیک و طرد اجتماعی و رویکرد رادیکال نابرابری)) و چارچوب نظری شامل مدل تلفیقی مستخرج از نظریه های مذکور می باشد. تجزیه و تحلیل با مدل سازی معادلات ساختاری به روش حداقل مربعات جزئی انجام گرفته است.
یافته هاتحلیل مدل و مقایسه مقادیر نشانگر آن است که روابط بین سکونت در مسکن مهر با هر یک از متغیرهای برون زای نابرابری امنیت اجتماعی28/7، نابرابری توزیعی52/2، نابرابری سرمایه اجتماعی42/2، نابرابری شاخص زندگی سلامت محور42/2 و نابرابری اجتماعی70/5 قابل پیش بینی بوده و دو متغیر نابرابری اقتصادی و نابرابری شاخص های سبز زندگی از مدل خارج شدند.
بحثبر اساس نظریه برگس که معتقد بود در منطقه انتقالی، به دلایلی چون: سطح بالای تحرک جمعیت، نرح بالای مهاجرت، ویرانی خانه ها و تراکم جمعیت، بالاترین نرخ جرم و بزهکاری مشاهده می شود. عدم ثبات جمعیتی و بوم شناختی در منطقه انتقالی موجب تخریب توانایی کارکردی نهادهای اجتماعی از قبیل: خانواده و کنترل رفتار ساکنان می شود. از طرفی، ارزش های سنتی فرهنگ قومی توان متقاعد سازی نوجوانان و جوانان را نداشته و آنان به یک وضعیت حاشیه ای کشیده می شوند. در نتیجه، فاقد هویت های گروهی و مرجع هایی می شوند که آنان را به سمت رفتاری که در جامعه مورد پذیرش است سوق دهد. در این چارچوب مسکن مهر، وضعیت فضایی ((منطقه انتقالی)) را دارد به تعبیر نظریه پردازان این رویکرد، زمینه برای انحرافات شهری مساعد می گردد. نتیجه اینکه، اگر روندی که توسعه ی ساخت و سازهای پروژه های مسکن مهر طی می کند ادامه یابد وکماکان توجهی به تامین خدمات و سایر مایهتاج و نیاز های مردم در یک محیط مسکونی نشود و صرفا واحد مسکونی تولید گردد مجموعه های وسیع ساخته شده، تقریبا خالی از سکنه می شود و تنها اقشار اجتماعی خاصی بنابه اجبار و گونه ای موقتی ساکن می شوند و انصراف فزاینده متقاضیان به وجود خواهد آمد تاخیر در ایجاد زیر ساختهای ضروری و تاسیسات زیر ساختی و ساختی ، زمینه تبدیل زندگی در مجموعه ها را به نوعی آلونک نشینی فراهم خواهد آورد که این مورد همسو با فقر شهری پیامد های گسترده اجتماعی فرهنگی وحتی سیاسی را سبب خواهد شدکلیدواژگان: مسکن مهر، طرد اجتماعی، نابرابری طبقاتی، برنامه ریزی مسکن، فضای مسکونی -
صفحات 183-207مقدمهبا توجه به افزایش رو به رشد جمعیت سالمندان در جهان و ایران، موضوع رفاه اجتماعی و استانداردهای زندگی به عنوان یکی از شاخص های رفاه عینی مورد توجه قرار گرفته است. این پژوهش در نظر دارد وضعیت استانداردهای زندگی سالمندان شهر تهران را با معرفی یک ابزار جدید برآورد نموده و ارتباط آن را با تعیین کننده های اقتصادی اجتماعی بررسی نماید.روشاین مطالعه مقطعی به روش پیمایش بر روی 150 سالمند ساکن در شهر تهران انجام گرفته است. داده ها از طریق پرسشنامه های اطلاعات دموگرافیک و پرسشنامه استانداردهای زندگی، جمع آوری شد. تجزیه و تحلیل داده ها با استفاده از آمار توصیفی و تحلیلی و نرم افزار SPSS22 انجام گرفت.یافته هامیانگین استانداردهای زندگی 73/6 و انحراف معیار آن 53/2 بود، که این مقدار استانداردهای زندگی در بین سالمندان شهر تهران درسطح پایین می باشد. همچنین نتایج نشان داد که، بین استانداردهای زندگی با متغیر پهنه اقتصادی - اجتماعی و متغیر وضعیت اشتغال تفاوت معنا داری وجود دارد، اما بین متغیر جنسیت و استانداردهای زندگی تفاوت معناداری مشاهده نگردید.بحثاستانداردهای زندگی سالمندان شهر تهران در سطح بسیار پایین می باشد، با توجه به نتایج این مطالعه توصیه می شود که حوزه ها و نهادهای ذی ربط رفاه اجتماعی در جهت ارتقای استانداردهای زندگی این گروه گام بردارند.کلیدواژگان: استانداردهای زندگی، سالمندی، وضعیت اقتصادی - اجتماعی
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صفحات 209-237مقدمهمعنویت یکی از عوامل تعیین کننده کیفیت زندگی، سلامت و توسعه انسانی، اجتماعی است. هدف این مطالعه مروری، تحلیل ابعاد معنویت مذهبی و شناسایی عناصر مرتبط با توسعه این ابعاد، به ویژه توسعه معنویت در دوران کودکی است.مرور انتقادیطبق شواهد موجود در متون، تجربیات دوران کودکی و چگونگی پرورش او در این مرحله، اثر مهمی بر کیفیت زندگی و سلامت فرد در طول زندگی او دارد. اغلب نظریهپردازان، تکامل بعد معنوی را مرتبط با سایر ابعاد توسعه انسانی مطرح کردهاند. در نظریههای ارائه شده، عناصر موثر بر شکلگیری معنویت یا مراحل توسعه آن در شرایط و زمینههای گوناگون (سن کودک و محیط زندگی) مورد بحث قرار گرفته است. حمایت از کودکان برای بیان احساسات و تجارب معنوی مانند عشق و نفرت، امید و ترس، اعتماد و نا امنی، ایجاد فرصت برای احساس حیرت و شگفتی، مهیا کردن زمینه برای تصویرسازی ذهنی، تقدیر از مشارکت کودک در کارها، همچنین بر انگیختن و تشویق کردن کنجکاوی او برای پرسیدن سوالهای مهم، برخی از روشهای پرورش معنوی هستند.بحث
همه کودکان با یک معنویت ذاتی متولد میشوند و ظرفیت پرورش آن را دارند. جایگاهی که کودک برای خود مییابد، احساس تعلق، تجربه معنا و شناخت پیدا کردن نسبت به خود، دیگران و نیروی برتر (امید و اعتماد)، از مهمترین عناصر توسعه معنویت مذهبی در کودکان هستند. اهمیت دادن به زیباییهای درونی و تعمق در زیباییها و پدیدههای هستی، زمینه رشد خلاقیت و پرورش روح یا تکامل معنوی را فراهم میکند. احساس همدلی و مسئولیت پذیری نسبت به خود، سایر موجودات و طبیعت، علاوه بر بهبود کیفیت زندگی فرد میتواند در ارتقای سلامت و توسعه اجتماعی نیز موثر باشد.کلیدواژگان: ارتقای سلامت و توسعه اجتماعی، معنویت مذهبی، تکامل معنوی، دوران کودکی -
صفحات 297-337مقدمهتحولات اجتماعی و اقتصادی در دهه های گذشته در سطح جهان، نظام های خانواده را با تغییرات، چالش ها و مسائل متنوعی روبرو ساخته و طی این مدت خانواده به شکل فزاینده ای از سوی علل و عوامل متعدد و پیچیده اقتصادی، اجتماعی و فرهنگی در معرض تهدید قرار گرفته است که طلاق یکی از تهدیدات جدی در فروپاشی خانواده ها بوده است. در ایران نیز عواملی اقتصادی از جمله تورم و بیکاری اثرات چشم گیری بر طلاق دارد. ترکیب خطی نرخ بیکاری و تورم شاخصی به نام شاخص فلاکت را به وجود می آورد و فشار بر خانوارها و زوجین را به طور فزاینده افزایش داده و به شدت بنیان های خانواده را دچار صدمه کرده است. لذا، هدف تحقیق حاضر بررسی تاثیر شاخص فلاکت بر طلاق در ایران می باشد.روشاین تحقیق به بررسی تاثیر شاخص فلاکت بر طلاق در ایران در طول دوره زمانی 1359-1394 با استفاده از روش خودرگرسیون با وقفه های گسترده ARDL پرداخته است.یافته هاشاخص فلاکت در کوتاه مدت تاثیر معناداری بر طلاق در ایران ندارد، ولی در بلند مدت تاثیر مستقیم و معنادار بر طلاق دارد. هم چنین، درآمد سرانه حقیقی، شهرنشینی و مخارج خانوارها در کوتاه مدت و بلندمدت اثر مستقیم و معناداری بر طلاق در ایران دارند. نتایج به دست آمده از برآورد مدل تصحیح خطا نشاد داد که رابطه بلندمدت بین متغیرها وجود دارد و ضریب تصحیح خطا نیز معادل 65/0- می باشد که نشان می دهد مدل کوتاه مدت در هر دوره 65 درصد خطاها را تعدیل می کند تا به مدل بلند مدت برسد.بحثبا توجه به تاثیر مستقیم و معنادار شاخص فلاکت بر طلاق در ایران در بلندمدت، با کنترل تورم و کاهش بیکاری می توان فشار ناشی از این دو متغیر را کاهش داد و به ثبات و پایداری خانوده ها از بعد اقتصادی کمک کرد.کلیدواژگان: ازدواج، خانواده، درآمد سرانه، شاخص فلاکت، شهرنشینی، طلاق، هزینه خانوار
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صفحات 339-381مقدمهدر طی سالهای اخیر هنجارها و ارزشهای حاکم بر زندگی خانوادگی در سراسر جهان تغییر یافته است، جامعه ما نیز در این زمینه تحولات گسترده ای را تجربه کرده است ازجمله آنها می توان به شکل گیری خرده فرهنگ هم باشی در کلان شهر تهران اشاره کرد. این شیوه تعامل بین دو جنس شاید در ممالک دیگر امری عادی باشد، اما در جامعه ما به عنوان یک شوک فرهنگی در نظر گرفته می شود. این مقاله در پی مطالعه خرده فرهنگ هم باشی و برخی آثار آن در شهر تهران است.روشاین پژوهش با روش تحقیق کیفی و مصاحبه های عمیق در بین نمونه ای متشکل از 20 نفر از افرادی که تجربه زیسته هم باشی در شهر تهران را دارند به انجام رسیده است.یافته هامقوله ها و زیرمقوله های استخراج شده نشان داد که فردگرایی، بازاندیشی، تفاوت نسلی، فاصله بین بلوغ جنسی و بلوغ اقتصادی، هزینه-سود به عنوان شرایط علی، مهاجرت شغلی-تحصیلی، سبک زندگی، تقدس زدایی از ازدواج به عنوان شرایط زمینه ای، آشنایی با زندگی هم باشی افراد دیگر و تجربه دوستی با جنس مخالف به عنوان شرایط مداخله گر و بازتعریف نقشهای جنسیتی و اعتقاد به برابری در بین زوجهای هم باش به عنوان راهبردها (استراتژی) مشخص شده است. پیامدهای زندگی هم باشی بر اساس نتایج این پژوهش به دو دسته فردی و اجتماعی قابل تقسیم است. داغ ننگ، آسیب پذیری دختران، بی ثباتی در زندگی هم باشها به عنوان پیامدهای فردی، کاهش تعاملات اجتماعی، کاهش کارکرد خانواده به عنوان پیامدهای اجتماعی در نظر گرفته شده است.بحثگرایش به سمت خرده فرهنگ هم باشی به موازات حرکت جامعه به سوی مدرنیته و گسترش ارتباطات و تحولات فرهنگی ناشی از آن بوده است و در افراد هم باش، دل بستگی و تعهدی که باید نسبت به ارزشهای پذیرفته شده در جامعه باشد کمرنگ شده است؛ بنابراین می توان گفت، رشد فردگرایی و عقلانیت در بین افراد جامعه، بازتولید نشدن ارزشهای نسل قبل در بین نسل جدید، بازاندیشگی در بین نسل جوان و... در کاهش اهمیت ازدواج و علاقه مندی به شیوه های جدید ارتباط بین زن و مرد تاثیرگذار است.کلیدواژگان: همباشی، ازدواج، فردگرایی، سبک زندگی، خرده فرهنگ
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Pages 9-44IntroductionAn issue which is often recurring in discussion on development is whether the main focus of development strategies should be on growth or on poverty and/or inequality. The goal of development strategies can be put in two statements. “First, the rapid elimination of absolute poverty, under all forms, is a meaningful goal for development Second, the reduction of absolute poverty necessarily calls for highly country-specific combination of growth and distribution policies” (Bouguignon, 2003, P. 69).
Issues related to the benefits of growth accrued to the poor have also been a priority of development policy in the 1990s. An emerging consensus is that growth alone is a rather blunt tool for poverty reduction. In addition to the emphasis on poverty reduction, policies of redistribution of income and assets have become increasingly important. A policy agenda that addresses both distributional concerns and poverty reduction could lead to the enhancement of both economic growth and equity. Indeed, the relationship among growth, inequality, and poverty is complex and interdependent.MethodIn this paper, the relationship between economic growth, inequality, and poverty during the years of the second to fifth development plan of Iran is examined. To this end, using the concept of pro-poor growth, this study examines the period in which the poor have benefited from economic growth and how the distribution of the benefit of economic growth has been. The measure “Poverty Equivalent Growth Rate” (PEGR) was used, which takes in to account both the growth rate in mean income and how the benefits of growth are distributed among the poor and the non-poor. The proposed measure satisfies a basic requirement that reduction in poverty is a monotonically increasing function of the PEGR; the larger the PEGR, the greater the reduction in poverty will be. Thus, the PEGR is an effective measure of poverty reduction, i.e. maximization of PEGR implies a maximum reduction in poverty. If a government’s objective is to achieve a maximum reduction in poverty, then its policies should be focused on maximizing the PEGR. Further the PEGR can be used as an important indicator to monitor poverty over times as well as across socioeconomic and demographic groups (Kakwani & Son, 2008) This methodology is developed based on Atkinson’s theorem linking the generalized Lorenz curve and changes in poverty.
The pattern of growth has been analyzed in urban and rural regions of Iran using the National Household Survey (NHS) covering the period 1995-2016. On average, each NHS contains information on more than 15,000 households.
Table 1:Poverty growth for Iran: 1995-2016
percentile Second plan
1995-1999 Third plan
2000-2004 Fourth plan
2005-2010 Fifth plan
2011-2016 Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural
10 6/37 6/28 9/61 11/20 0/36 -3/34 -9/89 -7/36
20 5/32 4/18 8/68 9/64 0/40 -3/17 -9/44 -6/25
30 5/11 3/10 8/13 8/85 0/39 -3/27 -9/13 -5/69
40 4/90 2/44 7/86 8/16 0/33 -3/36 -8/41 -5/20
50 4/69 2/03 7/78 7/59 0/17 -3/38 -7/54 -4/15
60 4/56 1/75 7/72 7/13 0/09 -3/40 -6/16 -3/09
70 4/47 1/52 7/71 6/79 -0/01 -3/39 -4/89 -2/02
80 4/33 1/33 7/69 6/46 -0/16 -3/38 -3/37 -0/65
90 4/22 1/10 7/74 6/23 -0/42 -3/48 -2/02 0/57
100 3/99 1/37 7/20 6/34 -1/10 -3/88 -0/74 1/08
FindingsEmpirical study illustrated that the growth has been pro-poor during the second (1995-1999) to third (2000-2004) development plan in urban regions (figure. 1). The annual growth rate of the mean income in the second plan period (1995-1999) is 3.99%. It should be noted that taking account of g(p)>0 for all P values, we can conclude that poverty has declined between 1995 and 1999. Since g(p) is more than 3.99 for all p<100, it implies that the growth has been pro-poor during this period. A similar situation occurs in the next period, 2000-2004. The annual growth rate of per capita income is 7.20% and growth is pro-poor.
Figure. 1. Pro-poor poverty growth curve for urban regions in Iran: 1995-1999 and 2000-2004
Unfortunately, the pro-poor growth did not continue in the two subsequent periods —forth (2005-2010) and fifth (2011-2016) development plan— when the average growth rate become negative due to the financial crisis. The growth rate of per capita income declined at annual rates of -1.1 and -0.74 during 2005-2010 and 2011-2016, respectively. In the fifth development plan, the benefits of growth received by the poor are proportionally less than those received by the non-poor (Figure. 2)
Figure 2. Not Pro-poor poverty growth curve for urban regions in Iran: (2005-2010) and (2011-2016)
The poverty growth curve in rural regions during development programs was approximately the same in urban regions (figure. 3).
Figure 3. The poverty growth curve in rural regions in Iran: 1995-1999; 2000-2004; 2005-2010 and 2011-2016.
DiscussionThe results reveals that despite the implementation of fifth development programs, poverty reduction policies have not been used as a sustainable strategic plan during developmental plans, and the use of oil revenues to solve the poverty issue as a therapeutic project without considering the growth and developmental issues, leads to poverty at some point, but on the other hand, causes the poverty return in later periods with a greater scope. As in recent years, with the slowdown of economic growth, has returned to the society more intensely, and as a result, the phenomenon of poverty and the underdevelopment of the economy in the country have reached a higher degree.Ethical ConsiderationsFunding
In the present study, all expenses were borne by the author and he did not have any sponsorsAuthors’ contributions
All authors contributed in designing, running, and writing all parts of the research.Conflicts of interest
The authors declared no conflict of interestAcknowledgments
In this article, all rights relating to references are cited and resources are carefully listed.Keywords: Distribution, Inequality, Iran, Poverty, Pro-Poor Growth -
Pages 45-83IntroductionSexual discrimination is not defined as the equalization of facilities and opportunities among men and women. One of the dimensions of gender inequality can be expressed in terms of the inequality of employment opportunities, types of jobs, and the level of payment for equal work between men and women.By looking at the results of the workforce surveys of 1395, it can be said that about 11 percent of the active population of the country is unemployed and the unemployment rate among women is higher than that of men. Iran’s ranking in the gender inequality index was 118 in 2015, with the participation rate of 16.2% for women and 72.2%. for menTheoretical Framework
There is some evidence that the relationship between women›s employment and GDP as a criterion for economic development is in the form of a non-uniform curve. In such a way that the impact of economic development on gender equality in employment follows the effects of wages from the U-shaped model.
Some economists have found a vague link between education and women›s participation through the outcome of the both effects of income and replacement.
Democracy in countries is recognized as a factor in promoting the status of women. While in conservative and authoritarian regimes, the presence of the patriarchal system, the reproduction of the traditional role of women in society, the low level of empowerment of women and their dependence on the state as vulnerable segments of society are still common.
International trade and direct foreign investment (FDI) can create job opportunities for women.
Political globalization with a role in organizations and international conventions is a key variable in promoting gender equality.
Economic growth, both as a factor in increasing the independent income of women, is an increase in their scope for the participation and accumulation of human capital, and as a factor in undermining gender equality.
Government spending as a macroeconomic variable such as economic growth can have different effects on women›s employment in the labor force market.
Domestic investment is one of the components of overall demand and influences on gender equality. This variable is the main source of employment, creating wealth and innovation.
Demographic variables can be regarded as other factors affecting gender equality in employment.
An increase in the level of ICT infrastructure improves gender equality in the level of work activity.
The presence of oil and the resource curse has led to a reduction in women’s labor force participation in the Middle East compared to other parts of the world. If the growth of a country is dependent on oil and mineral resources, with the oil sector booming, commodity trade will decline, and women will be more likely to face wage cuts as more women work in the commercial sector.
There is a vague connection between the unemployment rate and the employment of women.
It can be said that in Islamic countries, active participation of women has been accepted, and they can keep their roles as women and mothers at the same time taking care of their children, and this matter seems to «have no real opposition to women›s professional practice».Methods and ResultsBased on theoretical foundations, gender equality is largely a function of the following factors:GE= f (GDP, Eqprimeduc, Eqseceduc, Domec, Open, FDI, Polglob, Ecgth, Govexp, Inv, Urban, Popg, Fempopshare, Internet, Mobile, Ythunemp, Natural Resources, Christian, Muslim(
As can be seen, based on theoretical foundations, the Bayesian data panel model is used.
Table 2: The Significance Test
Condition Cases Successes Probability
model2.moslem > 0 20000 19796 0.9898
model2.oil < 0 20000 14846 0.7423
model2.christian > 0 20000 19861 0.99305
model2._youth_unemployment_rate > 0 20000 18768 0.9384
model2.population_growth < 0 20000 20000 1
model2._female_population < 0 20000 18913 0.94565
model2.Urban_population < 0 20000 18740 0.937
model2.domestic_investment < 0 20000 19926 0.9963
model2.goverment_expenditure < 0 20000 19160 0.958
model2.economic_growth > 0 20000 16547 0.82735
model2.Political_globalization_index < 0 20000 11401 0.57005
model2.FDI < 0 20000 19859 0.99295
model2.Trade_open > 0 20000 10205 0.51025
model2.Democracy < 0 20000 16362 0.8181
model2.GDP_per_capita < 0 20000 11217 0.56085
model2.internet > 0 20000 11734 0.5867
model2.mobile < 0 20000 18595 0.92975
model2.Gendereq_in_secondary_edu > 0 20000 18859 0.94295
model2.Gendereq_in_primary_educa < 0 20000 16862 0.8431
Table 3
The Results of the Convergence Test for the Markov Chain Monte Carlo for Each of the Estimated Parameters.
Mean Spectral
density at 0 MCMC
sd. error Relative
Numer. Eff. Inefficiency
factor
moslem 2.17439 12.6057 0.06293 0.010978 91.0885
oil -0.06541 0.697603 0.014804 0.002264 441.604
christian 2.38052 13.4004 0.064884 0.010752 93.0085
_youth_unemplo+ 0.001157 2.16E-06 2.61E-05 0.041358 24.1791
population_gro+ -0.05694 0.000555 0.000417 0.038508 25.9685
_female_popula+ -0.02976 0.004676 0.001212 0.011641 85.9053
Urban_populati+ -0.00198 1.52E-05 6.91E-05 0.017974 55.6368
domestic_inves+ -0.00212 8.86E-07 1.67E-05 0.110971 9.0114
goverment_expe+ -0.00283 5.06E-06 3.99E-05 0.083217 12.0168
economic_growth 0.000808 2.88E-07 9.51E-06 0.405174 2.46807
Political_glob+ -7.63E-05 3.21E-07 1.00E-05 0.091255 10.9583
FDI -0.00157 9.34E-08 5.42E-06 0.684832 1.46021
Trade_open 3.76E-06 4.49E-07 1.19E-05 0.054602 18.3144
Democracy -0.00227 1.34E-05 6.50E-05 0.075739 13.2033
GDP_per_capita -4.13E-07 1.32E-11 6.44E-08 0.094679 10.562
internet 8.76E-05 1.67E-07 7.25E-06 0.162687 6.14677
mobile -0.0003 7.48E-08 4.85E-06 0.090343 11.0689
Gendereq_in_se+ 0.111469 0.017214 0.002325 0.047011 21.2715
Gendereq_in_pr+ -0.02392 0.000206 0.000255 0.434065 2.3038
tau 444.66 278.889 0.295999 0.733929 1.36253
omega 40.8264 348.491 0.33088 0.101962 9.8076
sigma_e 0.047539 8.08E-07 1.59E-05 0.732259 1.36564
sigma_alpha 0.164679 0.002182 0.000828 0.072843 13.7281
Discussion and conclusionThe results show that population growth, domestic investment, Christianity, and direct foreign investment are the most important determinants of gender equality, respectively. As expected, if population growth is to be allocated to women with lower educational, health and other priorities, domestic investment and direct foreign investment due to inefficiencies and corruption in countries in developing countries, they will lead to an increase in gender equality. On the other hand, Christian countries have more gender equality than Islamic countries in the labor force market. Government spending, secondary education, women›s share of the population, youth unemployment rate, urban population share, mobile users, gender equality in elementary education, economic growth and democracy, with a high probability (82-98%), on the gender equality model are effective in developing countries. While other model variables include oil exporting countries, internet users, the index of globalization, GDP, and open trade, they can have an uncertain probability (about 50%) in the pattern. As a result, it can be stated that demographic variables, internal and external capital, religion, and gender equality in education provide the best explanation for the employment gap between men and women in developing countries. Therefore, maintaining a balance in population growth, preventing domestic investment in inefficient projects, creating a suitable platform for women›s higher education, preventing them from directing to less paid jobs, using the Internet to update women›s skills, trading in goods, limiting the dependence on the oil sector as a male component, and ultimately, increasing economic growth in developing countries including Iran could provide suggestions for reducing gender inequality in the labor market.
Ethical ConsiderationsFunding
In the present study, did not have any sponsorsAuthors’ contributions
All authors contributed in designing, running, and writing all parts of the research.Conflicts of interest
This article does not conflict with other articles of my.Acknowledgments
This article follows the principles of ethics and research and is endorsed by the Bu-Ali Sina University in this regardKeywords: Determinants, Gender equality, Iran, the Baysin model averaging, Youth employment -
Pages 85-134IntroductionWith the expeditios growth of urban population in developing countries, slums as a social predicament and problem has impeded the urban management of these countries. From this viewpoint, and by doing multiple researche studies, the researchers of different courses in Iran have tried to survey the grounds of formation and growth of this phenonmenon as well as its consequences and effects. Regarding the nature of the topic, a remarkable variety is observed in the ‘statement of the problem’ and ‘methodology’. This paper systematically reviewed the field of slums in the past two decades, a critical assessment of how to face field researchers, including the geography and management was carried out as well. The systematic review method in this study provides the opportunity to conduct a descriptive and analytical survey of them with reflections, questions, methodology, theoretical framework, and other selected paper characteristics. The findings of this review show that there is no consensus about the term”slums or marginalization” in Iran, and little effort has ben made to offer a public acceptance as regards the definition. It is obvious that in the design of related issues, a quantitative approach has been to be the dominant approach of active researchers in this field.MethodThe method used in the current study was a systematic review and analysis of the previous studies. Systematic reviews provide useful and concise summaries of a given subject on a particular topic, and contrary to the traditional approach to reviewing articles, such as early research, follow strict and rigorous principles. Their approach is quite systematic and their methodology is pre-designed in the systematic review protocol.FindingsThe review of studies and research carried out in the slum areas suggests that most researchers believe that the informal slum and settlement in Iran and its emergence and then expansion has been affected by the arrival of oil deposits, and especially the oil boom of the 1930s and 1340s. In this period, the injection of oil revenues led to massive changes in the life style and consumption in Iran. Subsequently, land reform was another stimulus that brought villagers into the adventures of the city-based life. Cities have become more differentiated especially from the villages by increasing the amount of services and diversity, and the place where the aspirations of more generations seemed to come. The middle class grew in these new places and farmers, peasants, and rural farmers who did not want or could not remain in their former habitat settled as newcomers to the suburbs and urban fringes. On the other hand, in the context of the studies conducted in the field of informal slums, it should be noted that, until a decade ago, there was a predominantly engineering and managerial discourse, and it insisted on solving the problems, in particular the problems of slum areas through priritizing the definition and implementation of construction projects. Engineers, being affected by their studies including implementation and evaluation, paid less attention to the views of social scientists in these areas, considering their top-down solutions to save in the challenges of living in these areas. The dominant narrative of the slums in Iran is that this type of settlement, life, and experience on the margins of the major cities of the country, without any support and social and cultural considerations, are formed in an irregular manner. The slum areas are prone to crime, and the focuse in such areas are likely to be on the formation of delinquent and distracting groups, and the best way to deal with it is to expand the urban service umbrella and to address the infrastructure problems of those areas. Subsequently, with the arrival of more sociologists, the study of the phenomenon of slums as the keywords in the social sciences became more important, and the purely physical views, based on the analysis of the status and land use, with emphasis on lexical expressions such as village-to-city migration, and theories related to intercultural matters, the social and cultural aspects of living in marginal neighborhoods were also taken into consideration. This entry has also led to a modification of the views of these neighborhoods, and many organizations and institutions active in this area have radically changed their strategies and moved to focus on addressing the basic needs of the inhabitants of these neighborhoods in a people’s empowerment strategy. Empowerment strategy has a process approach instead of a momentary view of the needs of the people, while encouraging people’s participation in various economic, consensus, and cultural activities provides them with key skills in achieving the goals, in particular the goals of success in society.
On the other hand, in previous studies, the vague boundaries of the term “slum” among the words “slum”, “slum dweller”, “getto”, “ Shanty town “, “getto”, which used to be common, have not been clearly and precisely identified with current widely used terms such as “informal settlements” and “slums”, and in many cases these terms are used interchangeably.DiscussionThe majority of studies have also suggested that improving the situation of slums in Iran provides a balanced service for those individuals, and it is believed that if the government improves its performance in distribution of services among neighborhoods and urban areas, most of the challenges for slum people will be resolved. In these studies, attention is not paid to the other causes of inequality in these neighborhoods, and only the weakness of the state servicing is the main factor in the formation and expansion of the physical environment of marginal neighborhoods. On the other hand, in most of these studies, the stereotypical presumption of slum and higher crime rates are accepted from the average of other urban neighborhoods, while it should be noted that it is not necessarily slum, distorted, and delinquent areas. The slum people, like other groups in the city, are faced with specific challenges and problems, and are affected by living conditions and lack many services related to infrastructure, education, and health, and there are definitely more difficulties to survive.. In general, the dominant views on slums were critically examined by the critical point of view, and the aim was to make the most important theoretical structures of these views clear and, if necessary, to provide an opportunity for revision.
Ethical Considerations
Funding
This article has been edited from the doctoral dissertation and is subject to regulations. Since the student has been studying on a daily basis, all stages of publication have been coordinated by the supervisor, but there has not been direct financial support for the publication of this article from any organization or institution.Authors’ contributions
All authors contributed in designing, running, and writing all parts of the research.Conflicts of interest
The supervisor of the doctoral thesis is the author of this article and the student under his supervision has written it. The consultant professors in the treatise also contributed effectively to the authors of the paper.Acknowledgments
In this article, all rights relating to references are cited and resources are carefully listed.Keywords: Slums, Social, cultural dimensions of Slums, Systematic review -
Pages 135-182IntroductionMass production of affordable housing for low-income groups in the form of social housing was one of the axial plans of the ninth Government to establish social equality and help disadvantaged urban groups and has been continued in the tenth and eleventh governments. Therefore, acknowledging that Mehr Housing Plan has brought about numerous positive and negative consequences, the present research provides a pathological assessment of social housing (Mehr) taking an approach toward social class inequality and urban deviation in Tabriz in order to practically revise and compensate for the weaknesses of planning and implementation of social housing.MethodIn terms of its goals and time period, this research is of applied and cross-sectional nature and in terms of data collection, it is a field survey research. Data collection tool is a researcher-made close-ended questionnaire. Statistical population includes 503816 households (total households living in Sahand Mehr houses and Tabrizi households living in other houses). Sample size was calculated at 1075 households based on Cochran formula. Selection method is based on multistage clustering. Major theories of the research include “social disadvantage approach, social segregation and exclusion, ecology of deviations and the radical approach of inequality and deviations” and the theoretical framework of the research is an integration of these theories. Data were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling and Partial Least Square.FindingsAnalysis of the model and comparison of the figures indicate that the relationships between tendency to social harms and any of exogenous variables of living in Mehr houses (11.50), social security inequality (7.28), distributional inequality (2.52), social capital inequality (2.42), health-based living index inequality (2.42) and social inequality (5.70) can be predicted. Two variables of economic inequality and green living index inequality were excluded from the mode.
Path coefficient table between exogenous and intrinsic variables
T Statistics (|O/STERR|)
7.286287 Inequality of security -> Tendency to social harm
2.523963 Distributive inequality -> Tendency to social harm
5.707630 social inequality -> Tendency to social harm
27.651037 social inequality -> Inequality of security
9.317072 social inequality -> Distributive inequality
96.837119 social inequality -> Social capital
2.273830 social inequality -> Healthy lifestyle
17.266949 Social capital -> Tendency to social harm
2.418280 Healthy lifestyle -> Tendency to social harm
4.265426 Residence in Mehr Housing -> Tendency to social harm
11.504991 Residence in Mehr Housing -> social inequality
0/026 Tendency to social harm Economic disparities->
0/097 ->Tendency to social harm Uneasy green city indicators
DiscussionAccording to Burgess’s theory, in the transitional region for several reasons such as high levels of population mobility, high migration rates, house demolitions and population density, the highest rates of crime and delinquency are observed. The demographic and ecological disturbances in the transitional region cause the destruction of the functional capacity of social institutions such as the family and the control of the behavior of the inhabitants. On the other hand, the traditional values of ethnic culture do not have the potential to convince youth, and they are drawn to a marginal position. Consequently, they do not have group identities and references that lead them to behave in a society that is accepted. In this framework, Mehr housing has the status of a (transitional) space. According to theorists, this causes urban deviations. As a result, if the process of developing the construction of the Mehr Housing Projects continues and does not pay attention to the provision of services and other needs of the people in a residential environment, and only a residential unit produced, large collections made, almost The inhabitants are vacant and only certain social strata reside in a coercive and temporary way, and a growing withdrawal of applicants will occur. Delay in the creation of necessary infrastructure and facilities leads to a kind of life transformation into a kind of urban poverty and will result in wider cultural, social and even political consequences.
This finding with the findings of the study in line with previous research indicates that in the case of continuing the development of construction and structures of projects of Mehr housing and in the case of non-attention to the provision of services and other needs and needs of people in the residential environment, the wide sets built, almost is vacant of population and only certain social strata in coercive and temporary way will be inhibited, and a growing withdrawal of applicants will occur. Delay in the creation of essential infrastructure and installations of essential infrastructure (Iran’s cultural services, water, Electricity, telecommunication, etc.) and building structures (cultural, educational, health, space, security and disciplinary services) will provide the transformation of life into a kind of hut which this case in line with urban poverty will be caused widespread socio-cultural and even political outcomes.
Therefore, in the short term, Mehr Housing Project is faced numerous problems, financial constraints in investing and locating projects caused the projects face with lack of adequate demand. This situation is caused numerous problems for government officials and the private sector involved in the construction of the project which ultimately to absorb the population is resorted in a variety of ways. But what is specifically mentioned here is the situation and living conditions for people who will live in units built for a short time. Also, based on the approach of social deprivation, social deprivation occurs when individuals and groups of a community are not able to fully participate in a community in which they live. The result is that incomes, abilities and other characteristics of the poor people will be away unthinkably from the standards of society and the group that belongs to it. Accordingly, poverty is a social structure and is often known as a characteristic for specific groups such as women, the elderly and the disabled. The most important feature of this approach is not only focused on the consequences of social deprivation, but also on the process that leads to it. Some theorists consider poverty as a disability in social participation and discussed the concept of poverty using the concept of ((social exclusion)). In this view, social exclusion occurs when people are not able to participate in society. And it happens where people and groups are involuntarily deprived of opportunities to participate in social affairs.
Ethical ConsiderationsFunding
In the present study, all expenses were borne by the author and he did not have any sponsorsAuthors’ contributions
The present paper is extracted from Saeed Iran’s dissertation, and Dr. Mansoor Haghighatian and Dr. Asghar Mohammadi respectively have been the role of supervisor and professor advisor.Conflicts of interest
There is no conflict with previous authors’ researchAcknowledgments
In the present study, we tried to observe all the written and codified professional charter and the “unwritten principles” of scientific and academic ethics.Keywords: social housing, Mehr housing, social exclusion, social class inequality, housing planning, residential area -
Pages 183-207IntroductionToday, due to advances in health and economic development, we are witnessing improvements in living standards and life expectancy. On the other hand, after a period of fertility, in recent decades the proportion of the elderly has grown by decreasing women’s fertility rates. The phenomenon of increasing the aging population is one of the most important challenges facing the present century in the economic, social and health spheres. Epidemiological studies predict that by 2050, the population over 60 in Iran will reach over 26 million. Social welfare in every society is one of the most basic social needs. “Living standards” are one of the most important indicators of objective welfare. Living standards relate to the level of economic welfare of individuals, and emphasize the external aspects of life, including ownership of objects and resources, income, and wealth. As defined by the United Nations, living standards include aspects such as participation in social activities, access to services used by most people (public or private), economic resources, such as income, savings and assets, access to health services, leisure, and housing. A review of research shows that the income index has been used frequently to measure living standards. But income is not an appropriate indicator of living standards, because it does not reflect other sources or benefits and does not reflect changes made over time, and many people refuse to express their exact income. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) also uses an objective approach to assess the standard of living. This approach includes GDP, employment, health, life expectancy and education, availability of facilities such as libraries and recreational facilities, and the extent to which people participate in the community. The review of living standards studies shows that there is little attention paid to the standard of living of the aging population in Iran, and in this case, there is a lot of information and knowledge gap. Thus, the present study was conducted to examine the standard of living of the elderly population in Tehran.MethodThis cross-sectional study was conducted on a population of elderly over 60 years in Tehran. Participants were selected using stratified random sampling method. Twenty two districts of Tehran based on employment rate, gross household expenditure, women’s employment, total employment ratio and household growth rate were divided into three zones, including low, moderate, and high. The sample size for each zone was calculated 50 people with an appropriate formula. The inclusion criteria included age over 60, the ability to understand and respond to the questionnaire, and informed consent. Data were collected via a socio-demographic and standard of living questionnaire. The Living Standards Questionnaire is a self-report scale and includes 17 items in three dimensions. Validity and reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed by Jahan pour et al. (2017). After completing the questionnaires, the data were analyzed with SPSS-22 using one-way ANOVA and independent t-test.FindingsThe mean±SD age of the participants was 63.7±2.9 years, 54% of them were male, 42% had primary and secondary education, and 57.3% were retired. Table 1 shows the descriptive characteristics of the participants.
Table1: Descriptive statistics of the participants
Variables N Percent
Sex
Male 81 54
Female 69 46
Level of education
Illiterate 17 11.3
Elementary 63 42
Diploma 48 32
Academic 22 14.7
Employment status
Retirement 86 57.3
Homey 37 24.7
employed 15 10
Retirement and re-employment 12 8
Income
10 million Iranian Rials ≥ 59 39.3
10-20 51 34
20-40 34 22.7
< 40 6 4
Housing status
Owner of the house 127 84.7
Tenant 21 14
Organizational Home 1 0.7
Other 1 0.7
The result showed that the mean score of standard of living was 6.73±2.53. The results also showed that the elderly acquired a higher score in the living facilities dimension compared to the other two dimensions. The mean scores of male and female standards of living were 6.65 and 8.28, respectively. However, there was no significant difference between two genders in terms of living standard. There was a direct and significant relationship between the living standards and employment status. The mean score of living standards in the upper, middle, and low socioeconomic zones were 8.72, 6.58 and 4.62, respectively. Therefore, the standard of living in the middle and lower zones were low, but in the upper level was moderate. Table 2 shows the status of living standards and its dimensions in the elderly of Tehran.
Table 2: Status of living standards and its dimensions in the elderly of Tehran
Variables Minimum Maximum Mean SD
Living standards 1.83 12.42 6.73 2.53
Life facilities 0.58 9.17 3.89 1.50
Housing status 0.50 3.25 1.97 0.49
Household expenses 0.25 1.75 0.86 0.36
DiscussionThe status of studies on objective well-being, living standards and dimensions including education, leisure, economic and social status, living environment, and employment status, especially in the Iranian elderly community, indicate the gap of knowledge in this area. The findings of this study showed that the standard of living for the elderly is at a low level. In the present study, living standards had no significant relationship with gender variable, while some studies showed that in older ages, being males and having lower socioeconomic status decrease the chance of achieving successful aging. It has been suggested that due to inequalities between the two sexes in property ownership, employment and control over income and assets, this age period for women has more economic problems. On the other hand, considering the effect of economic power on the degree of satisfaction with aging, it seems that women’s economic weakness due to their low level of employment and activity makes it difficult for women to have an old age. In this research, there is a meaningful relationship between living standards and the employment status of elderly people because some people may be re-employed during retirement and this may be related to the needs of individuals life and socioeconomic problems. We found that the living standards of elderly people in the upper zone of Tehran were better than moderate and low zones. There is also a significant relationship between variables of living standards and socioeconomic status. Considering the importance of this age group, more research is needed in order to investigate their issues in Iranian society. We proposed that living standards in older people in other cities of Iran be assessed due to cultural, linguistic, and lifestyle differences.Ethical ConsiderationsFunding
In the present study, all expenses were borne by the author and he did not have any sponsorsAuthors’ contributions
All authors contributed in designing, running, and writing all parts of the research.Conflicts of interest
The authors declared no conflict of interestAcknowledgments
In this article, all rights relating to references are cited and resources are carefully listed.Keywords: living standards, aging, socioeconomic status -
Pages 209-237IntroductionWell-being and stability in life are considered as predictor factors of quality of life, health as well as social and human development. Physical and mental health, sense of integration and consistency in life, resiliency, positive attitude toward life challenges and social welfare are positive effects of spirituality. On the other hand, it can be considered as an internal incentive to create profound and deep change during human evolution. Spirituality can be regarded as a continuum in which spiritual health (positive spirituality) is at one end of it and spiritual injury at the other end or opposite side (negative spirituality). Spirituality is an intrapersonal quest to find the response for basic questions about existence, meaning, and communication with supernatural power. The childhood period is a critical stage across life course. Therefore, spiritual experiences could be beneficial in the formation of positive spirituality or human development. Providing evidence regarding spirituality growth process or finding how it is being nurtured during childhood may be useful in policy making and planning strategies for improving social health. A holistic approach might help recognise spirituality elements and how they can be developed. This review study aims at analysing spirituality aspects and identifying characteristics and factors related to spiritual development, particularly during childhood.MethodThe present study is a narrative review to find the role of childhood experiences on the formation of spirituality and human development. Data were gathered during June 2018, through literature review in ScienceDirect platform and databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, and Magiran. Documents were searched using keywords such as “Health AND Spirituality”, “Religion AND Spirituality”, “Spirituality evolution” AND “childhood”, and “Spiritual development” AND “childhood”. A Total of 65, 281 documents were found out of which the Persian language had recorded just 43 of them. Duplicate and unrelated documents were excluded, then the references of selected articles were delved, and 88 abstracts were assessed based on their titles. Lastly, the most proper research studies were included for further analysis after a screening process.FindingsMost theorists specialized in human development have mentioned that all of the children possess an innate spirituality and experience some types of spiritual moments or conditions. Some of the scientists have acclaimed that every person has a capacity to flourish and discussed regarding the crucial factors on the formation of spirituality and suggested its relationship with other elements of human development. Spirituality nurturing is the process of growing the intrinsic capacity for self-transcendence. In other words, stages of spiritual evolution in diverse contexts and situations (child’s age and life conditions) have been considered.
Human beings depending on their disposition, have different perceptions and reactions about life experiences. Contexts and systems across the lifespan could act as a facilitator to nurture spirituality or hinder its development. Teaching along with creating suitable conditions to encounter spiritual feelings as well as paying more attention to these types of experiences during childhood would have positive impacts on spirituality evolution. Focusing on emotions and physical senses whether positive or negative helps children to explore more about their internal world and find a better understanding of own existence as a whole (wholeness or integrity of self). Moreover, they can achieve essential goals or meaning to deal with adversities. Situations and programs in which they raise cognitive imagination could be conducive to discover values and meanings. Spirituality development is an approach consisting of three significant aspects including: first, the sense of belonging which nurtures if children are provided with opportunities for participation in great or important works, moreover, whether they are affirmed and thanked for their cooperation or helping others.Second, respect to self and others which improves when children are taught and persuaded to have perseverance and determination to patiently deal with challenges and difficult situations and express their thoughts and ideas when they are asked for. Third, awareness and appreciation as regards unknown and unclear issues which develops when a child’s curiosity and creativity is encouraged and he/she is allowed to question on essential matters, additionally, when beauties and mysteries of nature are noticed and appreciated. In sum, supporting children to express experiences and passions such as love/hate, hope/fear, trust/insecurity, as well as making opportunity to induce feelings like awe, ponder, and imagination, cooperation in works, and search for finding the response to essential questions are some methods that can nurture spirituality.DiscussionChildren possess a potential and latent capacity to spiritual development and experience some degrees of spiritual feelings. Experiencing a relationship with God is formed depending on learned signals and symbols within context. Contextual messages can be received from internal (various personal senses and emotions) or external situations (time, place and other relationships in the environment). Identity, sense of belonging and meaning, as well as purpose in life, are interrelated factors influenced by spirituality and the ways which might be improved. Identity is composed of ideas and beliefs which are constructed during the human life cycle by cognitive, emotional and relational processes within specific contexts. Positive or healthy spirituality is related to a consistent personality, committing to values and ethical choices. Spiritual development for driving social health promotion and sustainable development means having the ability to understand feelings (both as regards self and others), intentional management of emotions, behaving reasonably and positively, being loyal to justify, truth, love and reliance on God. Sensibility and ability to have empathy and responsibility as regards self, other creatures, and nature could be useful in improving personal quality of life as well as social health and development. Human beings are like systems within the cosmos that have an interrelationship with other aspects of the world. The lifestyle of people is influenced by their spirituality which in return would result in impacts on individual health, environment, and community. According to some reports, choosing nutrient and healthy diet, physical activity adheres to healthy behaviors; respecting social norms and rules (cautious driving, abstinence of high risk or unethical practices), social responsibility and contribution; respecting and being concerned about protection of nature can be related to the spirituality of individuals. In sum, spiritual improvement would have positive impacts on the promotion of health and social development. Owing to childhood is an essential and sensitive stage of life cycle, more attention should be paid in this regard to nurturing spirituality.
The mixed model of spiritual development derived from Rousseau &Schein 2014
Ethical ConsiderationsFunding
In the present study, all expenses were borne by the author and he did not have any sponsorsAuthors’ contributions
All authors contributed in designing, running, and writing all parts of the research.Conflicts of interest
The authors declared no conflict of interestAcknowledgments
In this article, all rights relating to references are cited and resources are carefully listed.Keywords: Health promotion, social development, religious spirituality, spiritual evolution, childhood period -
Pages 297-337IntroductionThe family is the fundamental part of all societies and institutions and it is the most important factor in the transfer of culture and civilization. Marriage is the basis of family formation. On the other hand, divorce is a threat to the collapse of the family, and it will cause harm to individuals and society. Many studies have examined various cultural, economic, and social factors affecting the divorce. In the past decade, social and economic developments in the world have faced changes, challenges, issues, and needs, and the family has been increasingly threatened by various and complex causes and factors. When the functions of the family encounter problems, such as biological, social, cognitive, emotional, and economic functions, its members gradually lose a sense of satisfaction and ultimately lead to the collapse through divorce. In Iran, economic, social, and economic issues, including employment of women, issues related to inflation, unemployment, and other issues have a significant impact on the occurrence of divorce. Since the unemployment rate and inflation rate have unfavorable effects on household incomes both in terms of earning and the power of purchase and the cost of households, economic dimensions can affect the instability of families. The linear combination of unemployment rate and inflation rate is known as the misery index. On the other hand, the inflation rate in the society will increase this index, and it also increases pressure on families and dramatically on couples . Several studies have looked into the effects of variables, such as unemployment, inflation rate, urbanization, economic growth, literacy, education and so on. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of the misery index on divorce in Iran.
Review of the theoretical literature
According to the Roy’s (2010) view, unemployment changes affected misery by two channels. First, unemployment can affect the non - financial sector of living quality. Rising unemployment on one side may results in personality change, and this could potentially lead to a divorce. Second, an increase in unemployment could affect the excess of living by changing the amount of expectation that a person could reach by marriage to the unmarried period. The financial sector of life depends on the possibilities of missing the couple’s jobs and the wife, which depends on the unemployment of the couple.
The relationship between divorce and unemployment from different angles and from different sociological and psychological theories can be explained. In other words, there are often sociological and psychological theories regarding the explanation of applied divorce. There are four theoretical approaches in relation to how unemployment affects the divorce, and each has different conclusions about their connection.
a) Stress approach, b) Divorce cost approach, c) Hybrid approach, d) Individual competency approach
Inflation can affect divorce with a decrease in income and wealth.
Inflation has affected income by raising interest and reducing the actual value of consumer wealth, as inflation reduces income and wealth and increases the divorce (Schaller, 2013). Although it is expected to increase in the economic boom periods, many studies have shown that the persistent and high inflation rates affect the economic growth and thus the well-being and the power of buying in the society (Eltejaei, 2012). Therefore, it should be theoretically expected that high and permanent inflation should have negative effects on marriage. Indeed, the rise in inflation affects the cost of living and the expense of household expenditure.
Review of the empirical literature
Roy (2010) studied unemployment changes over the possibility of divorce using data from Australia during the period 1994 - 2007 and concluded that changes in unemployment affect the separation of married people.
Amato and Beatti (2011) studied the relationship between unemployment and divorce by using data from 50 states of Colombia from 1960 to 2005. It has been shown that unemployment has a positive effect on divorce.
Hellerstein (2011) conducted an empirical study of unemployment and divorce rates using 1976 – 2009 data and concluded that there is a negative relationship between divorce and unemployment.
Nasrallahei et al. ( 2013) investigated the analysis of factors affecting the divorce by stressing the economic variables and women’s literacy over divorce in Iran using panel data model during the period of 2002 - 2007 in 28 provinces of Iran. The results of their study showed that there is a direct and significant relationship between unemployment, the literacy rate for women and urbanization.
Fallahei and Deldar (2016) investigated the impact of inflation and unemployment on the divorce rate in the provinces of Iran using panel data model during 2002-2012. They concluded that inflation, unemployment, education level, and urbanization have positive and significant relationship with divorce rate.MethodologyThis study examines the effects of factors such as the misery index which is a linear combination of inflation rate and unemployment rate, the divorce in Iran during the period of 1981-2015 using Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) method. The Engle-Granger methods in studies dealing with small samples (the number of low observations) do not have the necessary validity due to the lack of short-run responses between variables, as the resulting estimates are not unbiased and therefore, the hypothesis testing using ordinary test statistics such as “t” is not valid. For this reason, the use of methods which has short-run dynamics and leads to more accurate estimate of the pattern coefficients are considered. Additionally, the short-run model is estimated. Then, the boundaries and statistics of Banerjee, Dolado, and Mestre are investigated. In the case of long-run relationship, the long-run model is estimated. Besides the classical assumptions the normal distribution of the residual distribution of the model, the consistency of the variance heteroskydasitsity, Ramsey reset test, the serial correlation and structural stability were carried out.
Empirical Model and EstimationResults5.1. Model Specification
In this study, the relationship between the Misery index and the divorce rate in Iran during the period 1980-2015 using the ARDL model were investigated, the model was expressed as follows:The model described the variables as follows:LMIS: The log of the misery index (Inflation Rate Unemployment Rate)
LDIV: The log of the number of divorces registered per year.
LURB: The log of urban population
LLIT: The log of literacy rate
LPGNI: The log of real per capita income.
LHCE: The log of household consumption expenditure
εt: error terms
5.2. The Stationary test of Variables
Augmented Dickey-Fuller unit root test was used to test the stationary of variables, and the results obtained from this test are presented in table 1.
Table 1. Results of stationary tests (ADF)
Variables Condition t-Stat ProbResultLMIS Constant and Trend -1.32 0.8647 I(1)
LMISΔ Constant and Trend -5.31 0.0007
LDIV Constant and Trend -4.38 0.0078 I(0)
LURB Constant -1.04 0.7230 I(1)
LURBΔ Constant -4.89 0.0005
LLIT Constant and Trend -0.42 0.9825 I(1)
LLITΔ Constant and Trend -3.93 0.0215
LPGNI Constant and Trend -3.58 0.0483 I(0)
LHCE Constant -1.65 0.4430 I(1)
LHCEΔ Constant -5.46 0.0001
As can be seen in table 1, LMIS, LURB, LLIT and LHCE variables are stationary in one difference and LDIV and LPGNI are stationary in level of variable.
5.3. EstimationResults5.3.1. Short Run results of model
The short run result of estimated model is showed in table 2.
Table 2. Results of Short Run model
Variables Coefficient t-Stat Prob
LMIS(-1) 0.348 2.72 0.0117
LDIV -.005 -0.1 0.9189
LDIV(-1) 0.030 0.53 0.6013
LDIV(-2) 0.147 2.69 0.0126
LURB 1.414 2.95 0.0069
LLIT -0.757 -1.79 0.2949
LPGNI 0.779 4.93 0.0000
LPGNI(-1) 0.174 1.79 0.0859
LHCE 1.250 3.90 0.0007
C -22.45 -4.24 0.0003 F Prob
0.98 0.98 237 0.0000
5.3.2. Diagnostic tests of classical assumptions
The results of the diagnostic tests of classical assumptions are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Results of Diagnostic tests
Test t-stat Prob
Serial Correlation 2.14 0.1408
Ramsey Reset Test 0.59 0.4493
Normality 4.27 0.1182
Heteroskydasitsity 1.36 0.2587
According to the results of diagnostic tests of classical assumptions all of four classic assumptions are confirmed.
5.3.3. Long-run Results of Model
To investigate the existence of long-run relationship, Banerjee, Dolado, and Mestre’s test has been used. The amount of statistics of the table with five independent variables is equivalent to -4.43, whose absolute value is smaller than the Banerjee et al. table statistics.
The results of the long-run estimators are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Results of Short Run model
Variables Coefficient t-Stat Prob
LDIV 0.264 2.02 0.0547
LURB 2.170 4.53 0.0001
LLIT -1.161 -1.15 0.2576
LPGNI 1.464 6.97 0.0000
LHCE 1.919 4.96 0.0000
C -34.466 -11.53 0.0000
The results obtained from the estimation of error correction model indicate that the long-run relationship between variables is present and the error correction coefficient is equal to -0.65. In fact, it indicates that the short-run model in each period will adjust 65% of the errors to reach the long-term model.
5.3.4. Model Stability Test
Figure (1) shows the result of CUSUM and figure (2) shows the result of CUSUMQ test in the estimated model, according to this result there is no structural failure, and the estimated coefficients are stable during the research period. Therefore the estimated model does not have any structural changes.
Figure 1. Result of CUSUM Test
Figure 2. Result of CUSUMQ Test
DiscussionIn this research, the effect of the misery index on the divorce in Iran during the period of 1981–2015 was investigated using the ARDL with distributed lags. Based on the results of the classical assumptions, it was observed that in the estimated model distribution of the residuals is the normal model. The identical model is the variance and autocorrelation is not observed between the residuals of the model.Also, the Ramsey reset test indicates the correct definition of the model. The CUSUM and CUSUMQ test also showed that the model has structural stability.
The results obtained from estimating the model showed that the misery index in the short-run has no significant effect on the divorce in Iran, but it has a direct and meaningful effect on the divorce in Iran in the long term. Thus, the unemployment rate and the rate of inflation and their linear combination increase the divorce rate in Iran. Therefore, in the Iranian economy by controlling inflation and increasing employment and reducing unemployment, the pressure from the two variables reduces the pressure and stability of the families from the economic dimension.
Real per capita income, urbanization, and expenditure of households in the short and long run also have direct and meaningful effects on divorce in Iran.Ethical Considerations
Funding
This study was extracted from a Masters thesis titled “Determining the Relationship between Misery Indices and the Divorce Rate in Iran” which was authored by Nafiseh Majdzadeh, supervised by Dr. Reza Zeinalzadeh, and approved by Faculty of Literature and Humanities at Isiamic Azad University Kerman Beranch.Authors’ contributions
All authors contributed in designing, running, and writing all parts of the research.Conflicts of interest
The authors declared no conflict of interestAcknowledgments
There is no ethical principle to be considered doing this research.Keywords: Divorce, Family, Household expenditure, Marriage, Miserly index, Per Capita income, Urbanization -
Pages 339-381IntroductionIn recent years, new methods of relationship between both sexes have emerged which have no family framework. Today, some girls and boys are living together although they have not got married legally and formally; based on a mutual agreement for an unspecified time.
Some scholars express that Iran’s society has faced with increasing waves of changes in values and norms by expanding new communicational facilities. The process of value changes including the increase in the divorce rate, increasing the percentage of female-headed households, prevalence pair selecting pattern by himself/herself, and differences between generations have created remarkable changes in marriage desirability. A subculture is a life style by a group within a larger culture which accepts a lot of life styles in that larger culture, but it is different from the larger culture in many aspects and faces against the public culture. This study tries to answer these questions: first, what are the backgrounds and consequences of expanding cohabitation subculture in the metropolis of Tehran? second, how can the cohabitation subculture provide a field for decreasing the marriage importance and family formation? The researchers will work on coding the payments. Albert Cohen, Giddens, Peter Blow, Bowman, Weber, Simmel, and Inglehart’s idea has been used to construct the conceptual framework for this research.MethodQualitative methodology has been used as the prevailing method in this study and the grounded theory method was applied for data analysis. The grounded theory is a method of quality analysis, and it includes some distinctive features, such as theoretical sampling, the use of continuous comparisons, and coding procedures that explain complex phenomena. Besides, due to the sensitivity of the subject and the fact that the couples were not easily accessible, and they were not from a specific community, available sampling was used to find the target respondents for the interview. After finding the respondents and conducting 20 interviews, the researchers achieved theoretical saturation.FindingsAccording to the research findings, it can be said that some casual conditions which have resulted in the formation of cohabitation subculture in society are the distance between sexual maturity and economic maturity, individualism, generation difference, rethinking, and considering cost-benefit. Marriage and family formation was a priority for the past generation after reaching the maturity age, but for a new generation, the priority is with getting higher university degrees and finding a suitable job after graduation. On the other hand, marriage and family formation following the traditional customs have high costs. Therefore, there will be a distance between the sexual maturity and the economic one. Non-responsibility can also be regarded as another reason for leading cohabitors towards this kind of life. The interviewees believe that no responsibility has been imposed on them in life, and they feel their life conditions are more comfortable than the traditional marriage. They prefer to have a relaxed life without any responsibilities forcing them to have commitment to others. These behaviors show individualism is likely to be on the rise in persons. The interviewees also said that if they encounter problems, first of all they refer to their friends and ask for help, and their social relationships are limited to travelling with friends. Most cohabitors hide this way of living from their families; instead they prefer to take this matter up with their friends. These factors show big changes between two generations’ values.
Cohabitors break the social norms and create new values by their deconstruction. The role of a man and woman in life and their duties after the life formation is clear for both of them in traditional marriage and life, but cohabitors have changed the duties which are entrusted to each pair and have no obligation in doing so. Further, the cohabitors tend to maximize their own benefits, a temporary relationship which meets their needs and have the most benefits and can exit the relationship with the lowest cost.
The background conditions on forming cohabitation subculture are educational and job migration, changing the life style and devotion of marriage. Most students who come to Tehran for continuing education do not like to return to their cities because of the opportunities for finding a suitable job in Tehran. Living in a big city where people pay no attention or even ignore the issues of others’ provides a basis for breaking the norms.
Although marriage is a holy Covenant in our society and culture, and our religious orders have emphasized on the importance of marriage and family formation, the analysis of interviewees’ remarks show that traditional marriage has been less important.
The friendship experience with the opposite sex and familiarity with cohabitation life is as an intermediary condition in the emerging life in the form of cohabitation. Cohabitors experience a friendship before living together. These types of friendship and conflicts among them in love processes have provided the conditions for living together.
Redefinition of sexual roles and meeting temporary needs are the strategies which cohabitors use. Each cohabitor does not enter this kind of life as the definition of their roles in society which are expected from them; for example, the female cohabitors have an economic independence and they do not pay attention to home works and the male cohabitors do not take the responsibility for life costs and have the same role in the home works as the female ones. Both of them have a consideration to a deep cognition to his/her own pair. The consequences of forming cohabitation subculture have been divided into two individual and social groups.
Participants characteristics in the study
Row Gender Age education
1 Man 36 High school Diploma
2 Man 37 Bachelor’s Degree
3 Female 27 Bachelor’s student
4 Female 28 Bachelor’s student
5 Man 32 Master’s student
6 Man 27 Bachelor’s Degree
7 Man 36 High school Diploma
8 Female 28 Bachelor’s Degree
9 Man 29 Master’s Degree
10 Female 26 Bachelor’s Degree
11 Female 25 Bachelor’s Degree
12 Man 29 Bachelor’s Degree
13 Female 27 Associate’s Degree
14 Female 25 Master’s student
15 Female 30 Bachelor’s Degree
16 Female 31 Master’s Degree
17 Female 33 Bachelor’s Degree
18 Man 35 Bachelor’s Degree
19 Female 36 Master’s Degree
20 Man 37 Bachelor’s student
Figure 1. Paradigmatic Pattern of Cohabitation SubcultureDiscussionAside from the casual and intermediary conditions which were considered, some conditions are governing on our in-transition society which can provide a background for decreasing marriage importance and family formation according to interviewees’ remaks. The high unemployment levels of unemployment, raising the marriage age, increasing number of the single-occupied housing, girls’ financial independence and, etc. can be referred to as other important conditions. Nevertheless, the family function still has its own importance and value among the society members as a lot of single girls and boys believe that the most important matter in their lives is family formation and marriage.Ethical ConsiderationsFunding
We have not sponsor for this article.Authors’ contributions
This article was written with Cooperation all authors (Pouran Omidvar & D.r Parvaneh Danesh & D.r Fatemeh Javaheri & D.r Mohammad Javad Zahedi Mazandarani).Conflicts of interest
The results of this article are not in conflict with the previous articles.Acknowledgments
This article is certified by the university and Extracted from the thesis.Keywords: Cohabitation, marriage, individuality, lifestyles, subcultures