فصلنامه رفاه اجتماعی
پیاپی 63 (زمستان 1395)

Although there is an almost 90 years of historical background for achieving welfare measures in Iran, there is still no safety umbrella despite the Islamic Revolution’s promises of preparing public and welfare services and developing the justice and equality in all contexts, especially for excluded people after 36 years as extreme poverty, absolute poverty and relative poverty indicators affect the majority of people . In this study, an institutional approach was used to analyze the welfare policies.. The document analysis method was applied through which articles, books, documents, rules and interviews were investigated using the secondary analysis technique.
Critical Review: The lack of an efficient and centralized welfare structure has led to inconsistency and abuse of available welfare resources.
Comprehensive system of welfare and social security law also failed to solve the structured historical inefficiencies in practice. Although parallel institutions to the government have played a good role in the provision of services and support, the absence of an efficient and centralized welfare structure which is based on up-to-date information has led to incoherence, parallel work, distribution and abuse of available welfare resources. Considering this, Iran’s society asked the government to pass a law on a comprehensive system of welfare and social security in 2004.
This study argues that, during the reviewed period, every government, regardless of their policy and according to society’s needs have created a structure, organizations and bureaucracy in order to implement welfare.
These organizations instead of attending to the society’s needs have changed into the institutions that try to preserve their power and internal interests to maintain their existence . Due to lack of ability in the accumulation of capital in society, this issue will historically repeat itself, resulting in a waste of resources and time, on the one hand and failure to achieve the goals on the other hand. However, executive agencies which receive a large budget from the government yet are unable to afford maximum coverage. Parallel organizational work and repetitive activities alongside the inefficient traditional structures and weak agency have led to the widespread distribution of welfare in the country. The lack of an organization that is directly responsible for the welfare of the country and the lack of transparency of government’s supervision is evident in the welfare sector. Such a structure needs correction, but creating individual benefits (by organizational and mid-level officials) affects the structural reforms. These interests provoke the conflict between organizations. Governments either before or after the revolution have failed to overcome the interests existing in organizations and supervise the welfare institutions. Informal structures in organizations that are hidden from the evaluations and outside observers, support the existing interests and the owner of interests do not allow for the structural changes.

The concept of change, coupled with growth in various forms has always been of interest to scholars of social sciences. However, as of the twentieth century, special attention has been paid to the concept of development and planning to achieve the development turned out to be a worthy goal for most countries. This attention was intensified after the World War II due to the need to rebuild the destruction caused by war, as well as the independence of the former colonial countries. First, the Soviet ::::::union:::::: started the planning and due to its success other countries more or less started to codify a comprehensive and focused plan (with extensive government intervention in all means of production of goods and services). Iran, alongside the onset of first experiences in planning in 1948, is a pioneer in this field. In this regard, after the victory of the Islamic Revolution five development programs have been implemented. This study examines different dimensions and components of social development which have been addressed in these programs and evaluates and compares them.
This study is descriptive-analytical and it was conducted applying qualitative and quantitative content analysis. Through document analysis and literature review, the main and secondary dimensions and components of social development were extracted (eight core dimensions and forty-four subcategories). Accordingly, the content of the development program documents was analyzed and the examples of the programs which were in accordance with core dimensions and subcategories were analyzed in Excel applying quantitative content analysis.
Findings: The study findings suggest that in the fivefold development programs, components of "education", "social security and support", "environmental protection", "optimal utilization of resources", "promoting science and technology" and "adjusted gap of deprived and rich areas" have been considered. With regard to the components of "gender justice", "national cohesion", "ethnic convergence", "reduced religious divergence", "the youth", "the elderly", "family health and stability", "social security" either there have been no policies or policies have been vague
Considering the socio-cultural requirements of Iran’s society and the growing trend of social problems, also lack of access to a proper global position based on vision plan, it is necessary to revise the development programs policies and pay more attention to the neglected components of the development documents.

Providing social justice and eradication of poverty and deprivation by creating balance between the distribution of income and wealth among the people of society is emphasized in the constitution. In this regard, explaining the relationship between income inequality and economic growth has been the most challenging economic issues in the recent decades and despite extensive research in this area, there are still unclear topics in this subject and empirical studies have also led to contradictory results. Some believe that there is a conflict between these two categories and argue that the unequal distribution of income in the early stages of development of each country is essential for growth and in contrast, opponents of this theory argue that an increase in the income inequality prevents economic growth. In this regard and in the present study, in addition to reviewing the theoretical foundations of the different effects of income inequality on economic growth, the level of inequality as a determinant factor of this relation has been taken into account and a non-linear relationship between these two variables has been specified.
Using smooth transition nonlinear regression model, the effects of income inequality on Iran's GDP per capita over the period of 1391-1348 have been examined.
Findings: The link between income inequity and economic growth in Iran is nonlinear and includes a two-regime structure, that is the effect of income inequality on GDP per capita is negative in the first regime and positive in the second. Therefore, a net positive or negative impact of the inequality on growth that was achieved in most studies, cannot be accepted. Additionally, an optimal rate of Gini coefficient equal to 0.3838 was estimated that maximizes GDP per capita and at levels less than this rate, an increase in GDP per capita has led to an increase inequality and vice versa.
The role and impact of income inequality on the path to economic growth achievement is important and economic development strategies must be based on rapid economic growth and equitable distribution of income. Considering the results and estimating the optimal rate for the Gini coefficient, policymakers should adopt a policy of "growth with distribution" in order to reduce income inequality and increase the share of low-income classes, particularly the middle class while achieving the optimal rate of income inequality through redistribution leverage such as poverty eradication policies based on reducing income inequality and redistribution using targeted subsidies and taxation of high-income groups.

Social welfare is the most important part of the concept of sustainable development which provides the possibility of meeting the needs of today's generation without destroying the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Rural social welfare includes an organized series of laws, regulations and policies, which are presented in the form of welfare and social institutions in order to meet the spiritual and material needs of people and to provide human felicity. The development literature suggests that promotion of rural social welfare indices is a function of various factors such as tourism activities. Development and prosperity of rural tourism as an efficient catalyst for the reproduction and the promotion of social welfare in rural areas should be highlighted. Accordingly, this study aimed to investigate the effects of tourism on the promotion of social welfare indices in rural areas of the Meshginshahr county.
This study was conducted through a survey method using simple random sampling among 331 residents of Onar village, a touristy village. On the one hand, in order to have an equal test and result, using causal-comparative, 331 residents of Kojang village a non-touristy village were selected through causal-comparative method as the control group. The validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by a panel of experts. A pre-test was carried out with 30 questionnaires and by using Cronbach's alpha coefficient the reliability of the study was 0/79.
Findings: With regard to the characteristics of indicators of social welfare of two groups, tourism development had an impact on all indicators of social welfare, except for membership in civic organizations. In other words, statistical analysis showed that development in tourism had an effect on the promotion of social welfare indicators in rural areas of Meshginshahr, as the correlation between tourism development and all components of the promotion of social welfare indicators except for the membership in civic organizations hypothesis was proved. In this regard, the calculated P for tourism development with leisure components, access to education, access to health services, personal well-being, diversity, social participation, social capital and housing situation was less than 0/01.
Tourism plays an important role in the promotion of social welfare indices in terms of improved housing, personal well-being, strengthening social capital, strengthening the participation of rural residents as stakeholders in rural development projects and strengthening social sustainability, creating social connections, improving productivity due to increased awareness and reducing conflicts collective and strengthening the education and health infrastructure in rural areas. Finally, in order to develop rural tourism due to its positive effects on the promotion of social welfare indices in rural areas of Meshginshahr, tourism infrastructures such as water supply, electricity, waste disposal, sewage and telecommunications have to be properly developed in this city.
Also, protecting and preserving the environment, efficient and balanced use of natural resources and rural assets should be taken into account and any interference with the structure of the village for rural tourism planning should be carried out alongside increasing the awareness of villagers, participation rural and the involvement of the villagers in the process of rural tourism as the main beneficiaries of the project. There should be a financial support for the development of rural tourism in rural areas of Meshginshahr. The results of this study showed that tourism development had an impact on in the promotion of social welfare indices in rural areas of Meshginshahr.

The Social Security Organization is a complex, vital and effective organization, so that in the current century, continuation of sustainable and comprehensive development in the country without the support of this organization is hardly possible. Human resources are unique capital for the Social Security Organization, which is a service-oriented organization, and can play a major role in organizational productivity. During recent decades, the improvement of competitiveness and profitability through improved productivity, has been the most controversial issue in organizations.
This study aimed to investigate the effective factors on enhancing the human resources productivity in the Social Security Organization. To do this, obstacles and solutions of human resources productivity were identified. Using the survey method and Fuzzy DEMATEL technique, 17 employees and managers of Tehran’s Easter branches of the Social Security Organization who had a Masters’ degree and above answered questions regarding the concept of human resources productivity in the Social Security Organization.
Findings: Social Security Organization is one of the service-oriented organizations whose human resources play a unique role in economic, social and cultural development which provide a better future for the society. The ultimate goal of improving productivity as a driving force of economic development, is to improve the quality of life of every human being. To investigate the aforementioned issue, based on the results of factor analysis, 28 factors were identified. Then, 7 of these which were repeated in further research were chosen as the effective factors on the enhancement of human resources productivity at the Social Security Organization. The results showed that the amount of attention paid to the creativity and innovation and job promotion conditions are the main barriers to the enhancement of the human resources productivity. Moreover, knowledge and experience, management style, management commitment and adherence to the rules and regulations are the factors which play a role in improving the productivity of human resources and should be prioritized. The variable salary and motivational benefits neither was affected by any other variables, nor had an effect on other variables. It was an independent variable with regard to enhancing the human resources productivity.
Human beings are the most effective factors of production, because if they cannot use tools, advanced equipment and technology, advances in technology will be inefficient in practice. The Social Security Organization which seeks to provide a simple, balanced life for the people via improvement of human resources productivity will be able to increase the quality, the extension of social security and customer satisfaction in the society.

One of the factors of unsustainable urban development, especially in developing countries, is informal settlements which are developing in the cities alongside the increase in population and due to growing urbanization. Informal settlements create many problems and disparities with regard to physical, economic and social aspects in metropolises. Therefore, this requires the adoption of special measures and strategies in urban planning. Proposed approaches to seek a remedy differ from omission and demolition to improvement and empowerment of these settlements. Therefore, over time and with the failure of past approaches to solve the problems of informal settlements, new empowerment approaches emphasize on strengthening the social capital and using this capital to mobilize four other types of capitals (human capital, natural capital, financial capital and physical capital). Thus, the strategy of empowering has a special place in the informal settlements literature in the world.
This study is descriptive-analytical and applicable. Through random sampling and Cochran’s formula, 384 people 18 years old and above living in Shir-Abad quarter in Zahedan were chosen.
Findings: The indexes of participation (in environmental dimension), cooperation (in the physical, economic, social and environmental dimensions) and formal and informal networks (in the physical, social and environmental dimensions) were above average. The indexes of participation (in the physical and social dimensions), confidence (in the physical, economic, social and environmental dimensions) and formal and informal networks (in the economic dimension) were average and the index of participation (in economic dimension) was lower than average. Moreover, there was a significant correlation between all indicators and empowerment dimensions.
The findings suggested that there is a two-way relationship between empowerment and social capital. Anything that causes social capital, also increases empowerment and vice versa. Therefore, the conditions of Shir-Abad, as an example of urban margine neighborhoods, provide an opportunity to use strategy of empowerment through social capital.

Methodological issues pertaining to multilevel research are certainly complex. However, this complexity is fruitful in many domains, such as collective and shared constructs. Methods of data analysis obtained from random tests when the unit of analysis corresponds to intervention unit are well recognized. When individual and random data are used via a group intervention, different statistical methods should be applied to evaluate treatment effects. The three introduced models are: I: individuals randomly assigned to individually administered treatments, II: preexisting groups are randomly assigned to group administered treatments and III: randomization is administered on an individual basis, while the treatment is administered on a group setting. This research shows that most research in social welfare corresponds to the second or third model while data were analyzed with the well – recognized first model. An example of managing workplace bullying by training employees of a holding company in citizenship behavior through different courses and using different sites illustrates the third model. Variance component of the exemplified research was computed for three models at level 1( ) and level 2( ). It was shown that the best ratio of these variance component appears in the third model.
All (quasi) experimental articles in Social Welfare Quarterly (SWQ) in which group treatment was applied were investigated. .Also, the content analysis method was used to investigate connotations of group therapy in introduction, discussion and conclusion of articles. The mentioned studies illustrate a distinction between the units that are randomized at the cluster level while the intervention is delivered at the individual or group (cluster) level. Six articles were chosen. The unit of randomization and the unit to which treatment is administered for these articles were determined and correspondence between them was analyzed . Only in one article the treatment was administered in clusters, but in three articles there is no correspondence between the unit of analysis in randomization and treatment. Results of content analysis indicate that only half of the articles in social welfare journal referred to group treatment, although none of the groups are reflected in the statistical analysis. .
Findings: In all the six articles of SWQ, deficiency in statistical method was observed, because in all of them ANOVA methods were applied instead of hierarchical method regardless of group therapy . Also, except for one article there is was no attention paid to group setting effects in the introduction and discussion. The third data analysis model received little methodological attention that raises issues. The most important issue is the relationship between treatment and residual variance. Traditional regression models and multilevel models were compared. The advantage of multilevel models especially their explicit determination of source of variability at both individual and group level was mentioned.
The results showed that method of hierarchical linear models were not applied in articles published by SWQ. It is recommended to consider two articles which were written a decade ago byLee & Thompson (2005) and Roberts & Roberts (2005). The advantage of paying attention to the unit of randomization and treatment and between design of research and statistical method of analyzing data empowers researchers to control for contamination across individuals if the cluster was used in randomization or treatment. In cluster randomized research, such as research of Ali Pouri Niaz et al (1388) which has been conducted at different sites and communities, the third model in this article was superior to traditional pre-post tests. The methods introduced in this article for analyzing data can be extended to some of the more complex situations encountered in social welfare research.

The aim of this study was to investigate the Career Choice Model based on SCCT among Iranian high school students. This model pays attention to the role of personal factors (self-efficacy and outcome expectations) and social factors (social barriers and social supports) in shaping the interests and occupational consideration. SCCT was developed to understand the processes that people form their interests, make choices, achieve performances of varying quality, and persist at academic and career relevant endeavors. Based on Bandura’s (1986) General Self-efficacy Theory and Hackett and Betz’s(1981) Career Self-efficacy Theory, SCCT focuses on interaction among person, environmental, and behavioral influences in academic and career development. Among personal variables, this theory emphasizes on the central role of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals. SCCT is equally concerned with variables, such as environmental supports and barriers. Much of the extant SCCT research has operationalized the content of people's career interests or choices using RIASEC theme. Holland (1985, 1997) divides both people and environments into some combination of six interest domains. These six domains are hexagonally organized, and include Realistic (e.g., outdoors, mechanical), Investigative (e.g., science, math), Artistic (e.g., art, language), Social (e.g., helping, teaching), Enterprising (e.g., selling, business) and Conventional (e.g., details, clerical), collectively known as RIASEC. SCCT consists of four interrelated models of interest development, choice-making, performance, and satisfaction. Key variables in SCCT’s choice model include self-efficacy, outcome expectations, interests, environmental supports and barriers, and choice goals and actions. More research involving non-Western samples, collectivist cultures, and developing countries is needed.
Through a cluster sampling method, 650 Iranian high school male students living in Isfahan , Iran were selected. Participants answered to the questions about self-efficacy, outcome expectations, interest and occupational consideration and social supports and barriers with regard to the Holland’s (1997) RIASEC themes: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and Conventional. The present study examined the fit of the choice model(Lent et al., 1994), which incorporates the interest model(Lent et al., 1994) to the RIASEC themes and tested SCCT’s specific hypotheses that are (a) self-efficacy is predictive of outcome expectations; (b) self-efficacy and outcome expectations jointly predict interests; (c) self-efficacy and outcome expectations predict students’ choice consideration (goals), both directly and indirectly, through interests; and (d) social supports and barriers account for unique variance in choice consideration, above and beyond the other predictors. Also, it tested Bandura’s (1999, 2000) hypothesis that environmental supports and barriers are linked to choices indirectly through self-efficacy.
Findings: To examine the fit of model AMOS-16 was used. Results showed that integrated interest-choice model fitted the data well with regard to RIASEC themes. Indexes of CFI, GFI, AGFI, NFI, RMSEA were good for the model. Results showed that self-efficacy and outcome expectations jointly predict interests, and interests mediate the relations between self-efficacy and outcome expectations and occupational consideration. Social supports is related to occupational consideration indirectly (through self-efficacy) rather than directly unless in R type. In this study, there was a significant relationship between outcome expectations and interests to occupational consideration . However, the relationship between self-efficacy and occupational consideration was weak and non-significant. Results showed that interest did mediate the relations between self-efficacy and outcome expectations and occupational consideration with regard to the RIASEC themes, also between self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and interests. Findings showed the relationship between social supports and barriers to occupational consideration was small and non-significant with regard to the RIASEC themes.
The fitness of this model in this study was good and it was similar to studies in Portugal (2010) and in Italy (2003) by Lent et al.. According to SCCT’s choice model hypotheses (Lent et al., 1994), self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and interests each relate directly to choice. In the present study, the relationship between outcome expectations and interests and occupational consideration was significant and was similar to the choice model hypotheses. However, the relationship between self-efficacy and occupational consideration was low and non-significant. SCCT’s choice model also specifies that interests partially mediate the relationship between self-efficacy and outcome expectations and choice. Results showed that interest did mediate the relationship between self-efficacy and outcome expectations and occupational consideration with regard to the RIASEC themes. In addition to self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and interests, SCCT assumes that environmental supports and barriers play important roles regarding choice goals. Findings of present study do not support these hypotheses and the relationship between social supports and barriers and occupational consideration was small and non-significant regarding the RIASEC themes. In the theory of Bandura (1999, 2000) it has been assumed that environmental factors are related to goals indirectly through self-efficacy. These findings showed that indirect relationship between social supports and self-efficacy was significant unless in R type and indirect relationship between social barriers and self-efficacy was non-significant. Therefore, Bandura hypothesis is partially supported. The implications of these findings for further research on the non-Western culture validity of SCCT can be considered. The base of research on SCCT is expanding across cultural and national (Kim, 2015; Falk, 2015; Lee et al., 2015; Lent et al., 2012; Lent & Sheu, 2010).

Self-employment is the best option to prepare people with higher education to find employment in the labor market in the future. Since attitude affects individuals’ behavior, attitude towards self-employment also affects adoption of the self-employment . By strengthening students’ attitudes, they will have more employment opportunities in the future and effective steps will be taken towards social development, especially the development and improvement of the social status of young and educated generation.
In case of unfavorable attitude of the students, officials can prepare appropriate curricula to improve students’ attitudes. Most of the studies in the higher education system that have examined entrepreneurial and self-employment attitudes of students have used a series of preset scales. However, students live in different contexts with regard to culture, society and the economic. Therefore, there is the possibility that attitudes are different. Thus, the present study aimed at investigating the postgraduate students’ attitudes toward self-employment.
The general approach of research was quantitative-qualitative and it was a practical study. Q methodology was used in the qualitative part, but analysis was carried out using SPSS software. In Q methodology , researchers select a sample of individuals who are of particular relevance to the subject or have special ideas. The population in the quantitative part consisted of postgraduate students in Campus of Agriculture and Natural Resources of Razi University in Kermanshah (112 doctoral students and 358 postgraduate students). To determine the sample size, Morgan Table was applied and 212 individuals were randomly selected. Also, in the qualitative part, snow ball sampling was used. Accordingly, some of the postgraduate students were selected as a research sample. After 25 sessions of focus group and person-to-person interviews with 52 postgraduate students theoretical saturation was achieved, meaning that subsequent interviews did not add any new information. In addition, the relationship between individual characteristics and their attitude towards self-employment was assessed using correlation analysis.
Findings: Gender, marital status and education level have an effect on individuals’ attitudes toward self- employment. In order to categorize the attitudes of students and to analyze the data, Q exploratory factor analysis was conducted via SPSSver.20 software. The analysis of Q methodology showed that students’ attitude toward self-employment includes responsible attitude, creative attitude, risk- taking attitude and director-oriented attitude.
Personal traits of students influence the creation and formation of critical and abstract concept of attitude towards self-employment which can even affect their future. Attractiveness and pleasure of being self-employed, puts financial independence resulted from the self-employment activities, taking the risk of doing new things, creativity and the fact that anyone’s destiny is under his control in separate categories.