فهرست مطالب

مجله جهانی رسانه - نسخه فارسی
پیاپی 21 (بهار و تابستان 1395)

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1395/05/28
  • تعداد عناوین: 7
|
  • دنیس بارتلز صفحه 1
    در دهه 1980 خطر مصرف فرآورده های گاوی برای سلامت عمومی در تمام بریتانیا آشکار شد. در این مقاله، سیاست های دولت های محافظه کار که پشت سرهم در بریتانیا بر سر کار می آمدند و با گفتمان سازی سیاسی -رسانه ای اجازه گسترش چنین خطری را دادند، با کنشهای صنایع سوخت فسیلی و متحدان سیاسی آن ها مقایسه و هم سنجی می شوند. این کنش ها به چشم انداز کنونی در انقراض انبوه منتهی شد که به وسیله مزاحمت در فرآیند تغییر اقلیم زیست انسانی ایجاد شده بود. گفته می شود که ایدئولوژی های طرفدران حق بقا به همراه تعهد به عملکرد بی قید و بند «عوامل موثر در بازار» از دلایل تمایل بخش هایی از طبقات حاکم بود تا راه را برای خطر انقراض های گروهی از طریق مصرف و احتراق سوخت های فسیلی هموار کنند.
    کلیدواژگان: ایدئولوژی، جنون گاوی، اسکراپی، تاچری ها، رسانه
  • میروشه خوژه* صفحه 11
    رابطه تفسیری میان مخاطب و رسانه موضوع تحقیق مطالعات دریافت مخاطب و بخش عمده ای از انسان شناسی تئاتر است. این مقاله این بحث را باز می کند که آیا با مطالعات دریافت مخاطب می توان موضوع بیننده را در انسان شناسی تئاتر بیشتر توسعه داد، به طوری که بتوان زمینه پژوهش های نظری و تجربی آتی درباره طرح‏واره ها و انگیزه های رسانه ای را تقویت کرد؟ این مقاله با تاکید بر این عنوان و بازتایید فرض باتسون درباره شباهت های اساسی میان بافتار و مسائل مختلف مربوط به آنها، می تواند مسیرهایی را برای پژوهش های بعدی درباره مخاطب رسانه ها با در نظر گرفتن عصر حاضر پیشنهاد کند. برخی از نتایج نشان می دهند که انگیزه ها و طرحواره های رسانه ای آن گونه که در این مقاله نشان داده شدند، درصدد هستند که انگیزه را در سطح نظریه با مراجعه به محرک های فردی به مخاطب نسبت دهند. این هم توجیهی است برای تفاوت های رفتاری میان اشخاص و تفاوت های (واریانس) رفتاری یک فرد. این دیدگاه معارفه ای درباره مساله طرحواره- انگیزه در دریافت محتوای رسانه ها شامل تعاملات میان حوزه های عمومی و خصوصی پیام رسانه ای می شود و همچنین به عنوان زمینه ای به کار می رود که در آن پژوهش های مختلفی درباره مسائل دقیق رسانه ها می تواند شکل بگیرد. پژوهش هایی که قرار است انجام شود و در آنها طرحواره-هدف فرافرهنگی بلندمرتبه انسانی نه تنها لحاظ می گردد، بلکه مشهود و برجسته بوده و قابل انطباق با تمام عناوین می باشند.
    کلیدواژگان: طرحواره، مخاطب، تئاتر، انسان شناسی، رمزگذاری، رمزگشایی
  • حاتم الزین* صفحه 30
    این تحقیق اشاره ی دقیقی به مثلث بلاغت و دلالت آن در سخنرانی های دبیر کل حزب الله سید حسن نصر الله دارد. این مقاله مطابق تحلیل گفتمان انتقادی، ساختارهای خرد و کلان سخنرانی های نصر الله را روشن می سازد. این تحقیق تحلیل را از طریق تمرکز اجمالی بر زندگینامه ی نصر الله بافتارسازی نموده و قبل از اشاره به ساختار کلی سخنرانی ها، بافتارهای آنها را شناسایی و مثلث بلاغت- اتوس، لوگوس و پاتوس [شورمندی، مرجعیت مداری و خردمندی] را در آنها کشف می کند. هم چنین به تفسیر معنای نشانه های مرتبط در این سخنرانی ها می پردازد، زیرا آنها با مثلث بلاغت مشارکت می نمایند و در نهایت موجب افزایش محبوبیت و اعتبار نصر الله می شوند. در این راستا، استنتاج مقاله این است که سه مولفه ی مثلث بلاغت در سخنرانی های نصر الله با یکدیگر مرتبط بوده، در جهت دستیابی به اهداف این رهبر و سازمانش عمل می نمایند.
    کلیدواژگان: حزب الله، شورمندی، مرجعیت مداری، خردمندی، سید حسن نصر الله
  • محمدسعید ذکایی، ابوعلی ودادهیر، رضا خاشعی صفحه 47
    امروزه با توجه به کنترل بیماری های واگیردار و افزایش طول عمر جوامع بشری، بیماری هایی بوجود آمده اند که کاملا به تغذیه ی انسان ها ارتباط دارند. انواع سرطان، چاقی، دیابت، فشارخون از جمله بیماری هایی هستند که توجه کارشناسان را به مسئله تغذیه و سلامت دوچندان کرده است. کنترل بیماری های غیرواگیر تاحدود زیادی نشئت گرفته از سبک های زندگی غلطی است که منجر به انواع بیماری ها و مرگ و میر های زودرس شده اند. امروزه جامعه شناسان براین باورند که این سبک های زندگی افراد است که می تواند آنان را سالم نگه دارد یا به بیماری مبتلا کند. در این میان، غالب افراد بر این باورند که در زمینه سبک های زندگی، خودشان دست به انتخاب می زنند درحالی که تا حدود زیادی اینگونه نیست. در این پیمایش تلاش شده است تا پارامترهای تاثیرگذار (شامل: مصرف رسانه ای افراد، پایگاه اقتصادی – اجتماعی) بر روی سبک زندگی سلامت محور شهروندان مناطق 22 گانه شهر تهران مورد مطالعه قرار گیرد. نتایج به دست آمده از این پیمایش (با نمونه آماری 802 نفر از افراد 18 سال به بالا) حاکی از آن است که بین مصرف رسانه ای افراد و سبک زندگی سلامت محور و همچنین بین سبک زندگی سلامت محور افراد و پایگاه اجتماعی و اقتصادی آنها ارتباط معناداری وجود دارد. به عبارت دیگر، سبک های زندگی سالم تر بیشتر در بین افرادی که مصرف رسانه ای بالاتری دارند، مشاهده شده است.
    کلیدواژگان: سبک زندگی سلامت محور، مصرف رسانه ای، پایگاه اجتماعی، اقتصادی، ارتباطات وسلامت، رفتارهای سلامت محور
  • سید حسین سیادت، سجاد شکوهیار، سید امیر حسین سخی جوارشک صفحه 66
    در این مقاله پژوهشی تلاش کرده ایم با ارزیابی سیستماتیک مدل های موجود در زمینه شبکه های اجتماعی آنلاین، آن دسته از عواملی که روی محبوبیت تبلیغات نام های تجاری در رسانه های اجتماعی تاثیر دارند را شناسایی و یک مدل مفهومی برای نشان دادن اثر محتوی به کار رفته در پیام نام های تجاری را ارائه کنیم. همچنین با توجه به عوامل ذکر شده 11 فرضیه در نظر گرفته ایم که هر کدام از آنها را به وسیله عامل های اندازه گیری محبوبیت پیام ها (تعداد پسندیدن، تعداد نظرو تعداد اشتراک گذاری) مورد ارزیابی قرار داده ایم. برای آزمون فرضیه های مطرح شده پرسشنامه هایی در نظر گرفته ایم. این پرسشنامه ها در میان دانشجویان دوره کارشناسی به بالا در دانشگاه های شهر تهران توزیع شدند و نتایج حاصل از آنها مورد تحلیل قرار گرفتند. یافته ها نشان دادند که عامل هایی مانند «پیام های سرگرم کننده»، «استفاده از عکس در پیام ها» و «موقعیت پیام ها» می تواند تاثیر زیادی بر روی بالا رفتن محبوبیت پیام ها داشته باشند.
    کلیدواژگان: رسانه های اجتماعی آنلاین، پیام ها، تبلیغات
  • محمدتقی عباسی شوازی، پوریا همایون صفحه 80
    این پژوهش به مطالعه چگونگی رابطه اینترنت و پیوندهای اجتماعی در شبکه گفتگوی مرکزی جوانان دانشجو پرداخته است. در این پیمایش، 404 دانشجوی دختر و پسر دانشگاه شیراز در سه مقطع کارشناسی، کارشناسی ارشد و دکترا با روش نمونه گیری تصادفی چند مرحله ای انتخاب و به سئوالات پرسشنامه پاسخ داده اند. چارچوب نظری مطالعه، ترکیبی از نظریات گرانووترو، بری ولمن و هایثورنث ویت در باب پیوندهای قوی و ضعیف و شبکه های اجتماعی افراد بوده است. به منظور مطالعه دقیق تر چگونگی رابطه اینترنت و شبکه گفتگوی مرکزی دانشجویان، دو بعد استفاده تعاملی (تعاملات برخط) و غیرتعاملی(استفاده عمومی) از یکدیگر متمایز شده اند. نتایج پژوهش حاکی از آن است که پیوندهای موجود در شبکه گفتگوی مرکزی افراد بیشتر از نوع پیوندهای قوی بوده است تا ضعیف؛ و شبکه آنها از دامنه (تنوع) کمی برخوردار بوده است. در مجموع، زنان، افراد متاهل، دانشجویان مقطع دکتری و طبقه متوسط دارای بیشترین پیوندهای قوی به نسبت دیگران بوده اند. نتایج پژوهش نشان داد که استفاده های تعاملی از اینترنت با پیوندهای قوی؛ و استفاده های غیرتعاملی با پیوندهای ضعیف موجود در شبکه گفتگوی مرکزی همبستگی مثبت و معنادار دارد. همچنین اینترنت توانسته است دوستان مجازی افراد را افزایش دهد که از نوع پیوندهای ضعیف خارج از شبکه گفتگوی مرکزی هستند. اما هیچ کدام از ابعاد اینترنت با اندازه شبکه گفتگوی مرکزی و دامنه شبکه رابطه معنا دار نداشته است. در مجموع به نظر می رسد که اینترنت تغییری در ساختار شبکه مرکزی افراد بوجود نیاورده و افراد اعضاء شبکه گفتگوی مرکزی خود را از طریق اینترنت انتخاب نمی کنند؛ بلکه اینترنت بیشتر وسیله ای است برای در تماس بودن با پیوندهای از قبل موجود در شبکه گفتگوی مرکزی جوانان.
    کلیدواژگان: اینترنت، پیوندهای قوی، پیوندهای ضعیف، شبکه گفتگوی مرکزی، جوانان دانشجو
  • حمیده مولایی، فروغ محمدی صفحه 95
    این مقاله به مطالعه ی تاثیر شبکه ی اجتماعی مهمان نوازی کوچ سرفینگ بر دانش طرح واره بین فرهنگی کاربران نسبت به فرهنگ یکدیگر پرداخته است. به این منظور از نظریات اندیکات و همکاران که مفهوم توسعه ی دانش بین فرهنگی را طی شرایطی خاص در سطح و عمق مطرح کرده اند، بهره گرفته است. بر اساس مفهوم توسعه ی بین فرهنگی، دانش طرح واره ها با قرار گرفتن در چارچوب فرهنگی جدید، در سطح افزایش پیدا کرده و با سپری کردن زمان زیاد در عمق افزایش پیدا می کنند. مطالعه حاضر به دنبال تبیین تاثیر شبکه ی اجتماعی و مهمان نوازی کوچ سرفینگ بر توسعه ی دانش طرح واره های بین فرهنگی کابران و تغییر کلیشه های ذهنی آنها درباره یک فرهنگ دیگر می باشد. به این منظور روش استفاده شده در تحقیق، تحلیل محتوای کیفی است که بر اساس آن مقوله بندی های مرتبط در دو مرحله تقسیم بندی شده اند. در مرحله ی اول توسعه ی دانش بین فرهنگی کاربران در سطح و عمق و در مرحله ی دوم امکان تغییر کلیشه های ذهنی به واسطه این شیوه از سفر مورد تحلیل و ارزیابی قرار گرفته است. نتایج تحقیق نشان می دهد که این شبکه توانسته دانش طرح واره بین فرهنگی کاربران را در سطح افزایش دهد و در تغییر کلیشه های بین فرهنگی گام های موثری برداشته است اما امکان تغییر چشمگیر آن در عمق را نداشته است.
    کلیدواژگان: کوچ سرفینگ، طرح واره های بین فرهنگی، کلیشه های ذهنی
|
  • Dennis Bartels Page 1
    Introduction and statement of the problem: In the 1980s, the Conservative government in Britain relaxed regulation of cattle feeds, perhaps to protect and extend the profits of the British beef industry. It seems likely that this policy change put British cattle, and much of the British public, at risk of contracting ‘mad cow disease.’ Scientific warnings that mad cow disease was similar to kuru, a degenerative nervous disease which killed many people in highland New Guinea, were ignored by Conservative policy-makers. Similarly, fossil fuel industries and their political allies are now willing to risk the mass extinctions which may result from fossil-fueled global climate disruption. It is suggested that ideologies of survivalist entitlement, coupled with a commitment to ‘free market fundamentalism’ account for the willingness of Conservative British governments to put the British population at risk during the 1980s, and for the current willingness of segments of ruling classes and their political allies to risk massive disaster by continued combustion of fossil fuels.
    Theoretical
    Background
    A cognitive scientific approach is used to introduce the concept of ideology. Neo-liberal ideology presupposes that unregulated ‘free markets’ promote national prosperity. Conservative relaxation of cattle feed safety regulations was consistent with this ideology. The owners of British mass media largely shared the Conservative government’s commitment to neo-liberal ideology, and widely repeated the government’s view that British beef and the people who consumed it were not at risk from mad cow disease. Nevertheless, warnings of the risk posed by mad cow disease appeared in some British newspapers.
    It is suggested that the ideology of survivalist entitlement was another source of the willingness on the part of Conservative policy-makers to expose British cattle and the British public to the risk of mad cow disease. The ideology of survivalist entitlement arises from belief in superiority evidenced by possession of wealth and power, and that such possession will always allow escape when neo-liberal policies result in disaster.
    The combination of neo-liberal ideology and survivalist entitlement which underlay Conservative policy regarding mad cow disease now underlies the willingness of the fossil fuel industry and its political allies to risk massive disaster posed by continued combustion of fossil fuels.
    Methodology
    Evidence regarding the ideologies underlying Conservative government policies regarding mad cow disease comes mainly from 1980s British mass media sources, including the BBC, The Guardian Weekly, and The Times. The memoirs of the late Baroness Thatcher are also quoted.
    Various anthropological and scientific sources are cited on the spread and decline of kuru in highland New Guinea.
    Evidence regarding the ideologies underlying policies of fossil fuel industries and their political allies regarding fossil-fueled climate disruption come from US National Public Radio, and from Merchants of Doubt, by Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway (2014).
    Results And Discussion
    There are, of course, other ideologies apart from neo-liberalism and survivalist entitlement that may account for the willingness of fossil fuel industries and their political allies to put humanity at risk from fossil-fueled climate disruption. For example, some fundamentalist Christians argue that combustion of fossil fuels is irrelevant to climate change because only God has the power to alter Earth’s climate. It seems unlikely, however, that such religious views motivate most fossil fuel industry executives and their political allies. It seems much more likely that they are motivated by free market ideology and survivalist entitlement.
    Conclusion
    If survivalist entitlement is a major factor underlying the willingness of fossil fuel industries and their political allies to put humanity at risk from fossil-fueled climate disruption, it is difficult to see how anything short of a succession of major climate-related disasters will change their views. Sadly, an increased frequency of extreme weather events and related problems predicted by climate scientists is now occurring.
    Prominent
    Results
    Understanding the ideological foundations of the willingness of fossil fuel industries and their political allies to put humanity at risk from fossil-fueled climate disruption is essential if disastrous climate disruption is to be mitigated.
    Keywords: ideology, global climate change, neo, liberalism, survivalist entitlement
  • Mirushe Hoxha* Page 11
    Introduction and problematic of research. The rationale of media audience research shifts the focus from text to context and thus incites doubt about media hegemony as well. At the same time, social media continues to perform hegemonic power in the recruitment of ‘radical groups’ which, through a kind of ‘nourished-by’ ego-delusion, denaturalize religion as well. What media offer or can offer to the recipient matters, and it also matters that research on audience reception should focus on how to get at the core of one of the main problems of our era wherein the responsibility is shared precisely by (those) media. This paper offers an instance of theater anthropology’s approach to the audience issue, justified by the inspection of its evolving routes that go almost in parallel with those of media audience studies, and wherein the issue of the impact of the theater performance on a spectator goes beyond the borders of the conceptual meaning of the ‘active spectator’. I argue that what media audience studies should bring from the state of absence to the state of presence is the person-centered element within its research to elucidate, promote, and encourage (both within that research and apropos productions) the very essence of human motives to act, also in response to media messages. This partially forgotten human essence is not the “surface” of the given motives, but it’s the ‘basic trust’ within each motive - as it was first described by Sufi masters and further developed in Carl Gustav Jung’s theory of the human psyche – namely, the trust flowing from human’s continuous tendency to integrate unconsciousness and consciousness. For the explication and engagement of this ‘basic trust’ as an innermost human motive to act, as well as its juxtaposition with non-rational human acts, media audience research would be preferable to include and develop the concept of media schemas and motives.
    Theoretical framework. Amongst others, the paper’s theoretical framework includes Sonia Livingstone’s ‘prospect for media audience studies’ (1988), Gregory Bateson’s theses on the ‘fundamental analogies between different contexts and their relata’ (2000), Naomi Quinn’s ‘motivational force of self-understanding’ (1995), and several principles of Eugenio Barba’s theater anthropology (1990; 1991).
    Methodology. The above-mentioned theoretical framework is taken as a ground to develop the hypothesis of this paper. Bateson’s theses frame the background of media schemas and motives as developed by the cultural schemas and human motives. Quinn’s hypothesis on the way cultural schemas become high-level goal schemas is further developed in a statement that constitutes the core hypothesis of this paper.
    Findings and discussion. This paper argues that media schemas are an instance of ‘an experience’ (Victor Turner and Edward Burner, 1986), i.e. an ‘Erlebnis’ according to Dilthey, and as such they are complementary to the cultural schemas. Media schemas can have motivational force in the way that cultural schemas can have motivational force, due to the continuity between media models and cultural models as well as the compelling force of media schemas (and cultural schemas). What applies to the cultural schemas applies for media schemas as well. The person-centered analysis of media audience ought to take into account the complexity of schemas, amongst others the issue on how schemas come to act as goals for individuals. According to Naomi Quinn (1995), one important way cultural schemas become high-level goal schemas in an individual’s goal hierarchies is by supplying us with understanding of ourselves. I argue that a given cultural schema that supplies us with self-understanding becomes our high-level goal schema because it’s exactly that certain schema which is our own, individual, most adequate means to self-surpass ourselves so that our innermost innate yearning for the individuation process could be achieved, or at least be an object of an effort to be achieved. Self-understanding is a means, rather than a goal itself. Goals are linked to self-understanding for the sake of self-transforming. Due to the ‘high vitality’ of the media schemas, the motivational force of self-understanding for the purpose of self-transforming acts more compelling through media schema (and also through theater schema) than via cultural schema.
    Conclusion. The trans-cultural highest-level goal of the audience (i.e. the urge towards ‘basic trust’) is conceptualized in terms of a moving force. ‘Media schemas and motives’ that make this component salient can make an attempt to shift media audience studies towards a position other than the current one, namely a situation wherein its likely accomplice-witnessing component vis-a-vis the engagement of social media in non-rational acts persists.
    Prominent result. The ‘disappearing audience’ detected by the critical communications approach is likely a symptom of man’s urge to reach the affirming ‘empty space’ (the ‘shared space’) that stands beyond the ideological determinants and tends to integrate two extreme levels of our minds, rather than an undesirable effect of the conceptualizations of the media (con)texts as highly dependent on hegemonic power. Media hegemony is explicit not only within the key role of the social media in the recruitment of ‘radical groups’. It is reasonable to state that it is the responsibility of media audience studies as well to deal more intensively with this urgent problem whereby its resolution would imply not a stigmatization but, on the contrary, a contribution to expose, face and overcome (master) our circular (‘nourished-by’) ego-delusions. Qualitative research of media audience can intensify attempts to provide data for its quantitative research to expose the forgotten essence of the human psyche and man’s acts. However, if media audience studies neglect its competence in regard to this problem, than social media should either be excluded from what we call media or all media expect social media should offer a plausible argument for its new denomination. If all variants are disapproved, it results that the question to consider is the one regarding the length of the long-term consequences for media (audience) studies in neglecting our shared problems.
    Keywords: audience research, media schemas, motives, individuation, theater anthropology
  • Hatem El Zein * Page 30
    Introduction and statement of the problem: Sayyed Hassan Nasrullah is the third Secretary-General of Hezbollah and the leader of its military arm “The Islamic Resistance” as well. He held this position after the assassination by the Israeli army of his predecessor, Sayyed Abbas Al-Mosawi, in February 1992 (Alagha, 2006). Nasrullah is considered the official mouthpiece of his organisation and his speeches constitute a part of Hezbollah's discourse and the discourse of its military arm (El Zein, 2015).
    There are studies investigating the speeches of Nasrullah (e.g. Bazzi, 2009; Lahlali, 2012; Matar, 2010). However, these studies do not consider the extemporaneity in the majority of Nasrullah’s speeches and their rhetoric. Although Matar (2010) attempted to study Nasrullah's rhetoric in a sample of speeches, she did not shed light on their rhetorical triangle - ethos, logos and pathos. Thus, the problem is represented by the dearth of research into the rhetorical triangle and signs in his speeches. In this vein, this paper aims to bridge the gap in this field and answers the question: what is the rhetorical triangle in Nasrullah's speeches and its implication?
    Theoretical
    Background
    In analyzing a sample of Nasrullah's speeches, this paper considers Framing, which emerged in political communication, "as an extension of agenda-setting theory" (Scheufele and Tewksbury, 2007 p. 11). It refers "to the selection and salience of particular aspects of an issue rather than to the issue itself" (Entman, cited in Scheufele, 1999, p. 107). In this regard, this theory allows us to understand how Nasrullah addresses his audience because the core assumption of this theory shows how the addresser shapes its discourse about an issue in a certain way. It considers and describes the external and internal factors that have an impact on creating this discourse (Scheufele & Tewksbury, 2007). In this vein, David Snow (cited in McAdam et al., 1996) defines Framing as, “the conscious strategic efforts by groups of people to fashion shared understandings of the world and of themselves that legitimate and motivate collective action” (p. 6). Thus, the analysis of Nasrullah's speeches pays attention to the internal factors, which shape his discourse and present it in a language that reflects the ideology of Hezbollah and its worldview.
    Methodology
    This paper considers Van Dijk (cited in Fairclough, 1995) who found that the analysis of discourse is concerned with its macro- and microstructure, or in other words the analysis of its schematic and thematic structures. "The macrostructure of a text is its overall organization in terms of themes or topics. It is a hierarchical organization, in the sense that we can identify the theme of a whole text" (Fairclough, 1995, p. 29). However, the microstructure of a text is its overall content, and the analysis focuses on units, such as its syntactic structure, lexical choices, semantic relations and rhetorical features (Fairclough, 1995).
    In analysing the macrostructure of Nasrullah's speeches, this paper points to their contexts and general structure and provides background information about Nasrullah. To analyse the microstructure of Nasrullah's speeches, this paper employs rhetoric to illuminate the mode of persuasion. As it is “often associated with the art of persuasion, rhetoric is typically defined as an integral moment of policy making, and the idea of rhetoric points to the necessity to convince, persuade, and communicate efficiently in the context of shaping and implementing public policies” (Gottweis, 2007, p. 240).
    In studying rhetoric, researchers can study the notions of ethos, logos and pathos to illuminate the efficiency of the speech (Demirdöğen, 2010). Ethos means the ability of the speaker to persuade and it is generally linked to charisma, pathos means the embedded passions in the speech towards the addressees and logos means the speaker’s use of arguments in the speech (Demirdöğen, 2010; Gottweis, 2007).
    Findings: This paper has pointed to the macrostructure of Nasrullah's speeches, this paper delved in the microstructure of the archival speeches chosen for analysis to identify the rhetorical triangle - ethos, logos and pathos and to interpret the denotations of a number of meaningful triadic visual signs in these speeches.
    This paper has found that the components of rhetorical triangle are correlated altogether to achieve the ultimate goal of Nasrullah and his organisation by calling for struggle against Israel because the speeches hinge around the significance of resistance to face the Israeli army and liberate the occupied territories. Within this rhetorical strategy, Nasrullah uses his charisma and his argumentative ability to mobilise the Lebanese and the Arabs for this struggle and to demoralise the spirits of the Israelis in the context of psychological warfare. In this regard, the paper found that the structure of power in Nasrullah's speeches links between the power of faith and the power of science, focusing further on achieving the victory by grabbing the raison d'être of military capabilities to subjugate Israel. Thus, these speeches that express the core discourse of Hezbollah intertwine knowledge and power and this aligns with Foucauldian understanding of discourse.
    Keywords: Ethos, Hezbollah, Logos, Pathos, Sayyed Hassan Nasrullah
  • Mohammad Saeed Zokaei, Abouali Vedadhir, Reza Khashei Page 47
    Introduction and Problematic of Research: Nowadays, improvements in health are considered to be an achievement. It is something that people should work on that to promote their quality of life, and if they dont do so, they would risk being affected by chronic diseases and untimely death. Given the ability to control infectious diseases and human being increased life expectancy, in today's society certain illnesses have developed that have something to do with nutrition. All kinds of cancers, obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure are among diseases requiring the doubled attention of experts to nutrition and health-related issues. For the time being, controlling non-infectious diseases needs more serious and delicate treatments; these diseases stem much from improper lifestyles, leading to all kinds of illnesses and ultimately premature death. Nowadays, sociologists believe it is the lifestyle of individuals that provide an effective guarantee for their health otherwise there is a risk for development of an unhealthy society. Accordingly, most people unrealistically assume it is them who choose their own lifestyles; this is while the reality shows otherwise. The choices of most people take place within a limited structure, one that plays a key role in adjusting individual's choices (Mirzaei et al, 2010: 114). Meanwhile, globalization has brought about new challenges for health policymakers; these challenges prompt changes in people's consumption pattern and lifestyle, particularly in health-related areas. Furthermore, mass media have affected significantly the public health by their role in individual's lives and as the main source of health-related information (Nandy and Nandy, 1997: 238). In the present day, the relationship between mass media and health issue is a reciprocal one. On the one hand, health promotion is an important area of coverage for media, and on the other, health needs to be promoted by media due to its mission for awareness-making (Kia et al, 2012: 111). This is where the problematic of our research resides.
    Theoretical Framework: The theoretical framework for this study draws upon William Cockerham's Health Lifestyles Model. Cockerham believes that the type of experiences and the process of socialization, which itself is the product of different structural variables, provides capacities for life choices based on which individuals choose and assess their actions, giving them the ability to interpret their conditions, making choices and organize their behaviors in accordance with their mentalities (Cockerham, 2013: 138).
    However, other factors related to media consumption and the role and status of media in the process of people's sociability are added to this research, because Cockerham's model does not directly deal with media consumption and the level of using this component by individuals. Given the role and influence of media in people's everyday lives and their instructive role in all areas, particularly in health domain, it seems this aspect is a necessity which somehow completes Cokerham's model.
    Methodology
    It is worth noting that this study uses the capacities of survey methods. The present research, as a Ph.D. thesis in Social Communications in Allameh Tabatabaee University was carried out in Tehran, surveying a sample of 802 individuals (the age of 18 and above). In this survey, the researchers tried to study the key factors (including, people media consumption, social-economic status) affecting the health lifestyle of citizens in all 22 Municipal Districts of Tehran.
    Some of the objectives of this research include: identifying the manner and the extent to which Tehran citizens have access to health-related messages produced by media; recognizing the quantity and quality of behaviors and health lifestyles of the individuals; assessing the health lifestyle of Tehran citizens base on the amount of media consumption and social and economic class of the individuals.
    Finding and
    Discussion
    This paper which is written based on the research, tries to demonstrate the extent to which Tehran citizens have a healthy lifestyle; it also seeks to explain the factors affecting health lifestyle choices. It neednt to say that adopting a healthy lifestyle allows everyone to have some personal control on his own health condition as a preventive measure. The findings indicate that there is a significant relationship between individual's media consumption and their health lifestyle. There is also a significant relationship between health lifestyles and social and economic class of individuals. In other words, healthier lifestyles were observed among individuals with more media consumption. Other findings show that only 9% of the respondents had''healthy” lifestyles and 45% had a "somehow healthy" lifestyle. In terms of the Body Mass Indicator (BMI), around 40% of the individuals were obese. Men compared to women had a healthier lifestyle and behaviors; it was also found that people with healthy lifestyle are more persistent than other media active audience in pursuing media health-related programs. Furthermore, the finding indicated that lower social-economic class has to do with the lower media consumption.
    There was also a relationship between the respondent's social-economic status and the following variables: the amount of out-eating; the number of annual medical check-ups; the amount of medicines taken; self-treatment frequencies; observing traffic law. As the social-economic class went higher, the abovementioned variables ascended accordingly.
    Wholly, the findings indicate that those class which have higher media consumption and pursue health-related news more, have a healthier lifestyle. Also, men have a healthier lifestyle than women, which do not confirm the findings of Cockerham's global studies. Also women have a higher Body Mass Indicator (BMI) than men, which indicates women are more fat and obese than men.
    Given the mentioned findings, this paper suggests: for having a healthier society in future, one should focus on health through communications and putting the center of attention on women; to reach this goal and promote media consumption among people from all walks of life, health-focused synergic education in all mass media (radio, TV, the Internet and press) is needed.
    Keywords: Health Lifestyle, Media Consumption, Social, Economic Class, Communications, Heath, Health, centered Behaviors
  • Seyed Hossein Siadat, Sajjad Shokohyar, Seyed Amirhossein Sakhi Page 66
    Introduction and problematic of research: Social media has an expanding importance as channels to collect information in products and services. Brands attend in these social sites to advertise their names, attract partnership and develop word of mouth advertising. That is why, analysis of the factors that interact consumers with brands advertising content, have become a favorite subject for research. In this research, we try to identify those factors which have influence on the popularity of brand advertising by using systematic evaluation of existing model in this context, and offer a model to show the effect applying on the content of brand posts. Moreover, we considered eleven hypotheses according to the mentioned factors and each hypothesis is assessed by the popularity of measuring factors (the number of Likes, comments and share). In addition, the questionnaires are taken to test the hypotheses. These questionnaires are distributed in between undergraduate, graduate and PHD students at the universities in Tehran and the results are analyzed. The consequences show the factors like “entertainment posts”, “using images in brand posts” and “the position of brand posts”, have a significant impact on the popularities of posts.
    Theoretical
    Background
    There are many researches done on the field of benefits of advertising on online social networks. Increase in the use of online social networks, new methods of communicating and statistical studies about gaining customers and their trust to online social networks are important parts of these researches. Some of these works will be presented here.
    SNS are turning into the most popular websites and are gaining the attention of the market increasingly as time goes on. SNS have about 6% of the total site visits and 19% of the total time spent online. Nowadays SNS are one of the most important information gathering channels about products and services and are developing new opportunities on these fields with every single passing day. (Tuten, 2008)
    SNS are developing new ways of interactivity, communicating, decision making, learning, cooperating or even marketing. Therefor the study of SNS and their effects on customers and organizations are becoming a hot topic among researchers, marketers and strategy designers. (Mangold and Faulds, 2009; Fischer and Reuber, 2011; Constantinides and Fountain, 2008)
    The rise of the SNS on internet led to the creation of new ways of communications that can be considered rivals for traditional marketing ideas. These features also help companies have more understanding about their customers and have the ability of direct communication. (Scott, 2007)
    Analyzing 1491 adult customers (18 or older) of Chadwick Martin Bailey, Inc. in 2011 showed that 77% of the customers follow this company via SNS, 60% would like to suggest this brand to their social friends, 50% developed willingness to buy since following this brand online, 58% said they like the posts because they are customers of this brand and 57% said they like the posts because of the offers. (Contact.C, 2011)
    Employing a well-designed marketing strategy on online social networks may lead to having a better understanding of customers’ behaviors and preferences, improving advertising by word-of-mouth more interaction with users to improve R&D, engagement development and brand advertising compared to big companies’ websites. (Hettler, 2010)
    On and on there are still no theoretical frameworks that can interpret the manner in which users can help social networks. It’s also impossible to give a certain formula for this procedure as there are many different brand names with specific businesses, facilities and goals. (Singh and Jain and Kankanhalli, 2011)
    Methodology
    At the beginning the researchers distributed 44 questionnaires containing 51 questions on five-level Likert scale among students using online social networks in Tehran to test the reliability of the questionnaire. Universities of Tehran have the advantage of being an almost perfect sample from the whole country as students from all over the country study in these universities with different cultures and ethnicities. A 0.902 Cronbach’s Alpha was satisfying enough for the researchers to continue their work in Tehran alone. In the next phase a total of 301 questionnaires were filled by the students of Tehran universities both in the traditional way (printed questionnaires) and online (using Google Drive service). There were 173 men and 128 women in our sample, 163 of them bachelors of Science, 132 Masters and 6 Ph.Ds.
    Results And Discussion
    Companies and brand names should notice that although using “videos” and “images” in a post can benefit them gaining more popularity, using these kinds of tools is like using a two edged blade! First you have to study the internet structure of a country and if sufficient enough, using “videos” and “images” can greatly increase the popularity of the brand posts. But in a country like Iran with a mixture of high and low internet speed, other difficulties like using proxies to access some social networks due to filtering, using these tools would not seem effective enough as some of the users may ignore the entire post just because they know that watching the video will cost them a lot of time and in the end they may lose the last seconds (Minutes!) due to some network problems!
    Keywords: Online Social Media, Brand Posts, Advertising
  • Mohammad Taghi Abbasi Shavazi, Pouria Homayoon Page 80
    Introduction
    Internet has been increasingly spreading around the world since the 1990s and the following question has been raised among researchers especially in the field of social sciences: How exactly internet affect social relations, networks and social interactions? In response to such question, two conflicting views have emerged. The first view that is based on “time-displacement” hypothesis argues that as the internet enables more access to contacts outside one’s immediate social world, there are concerns that the internet may decrease people’s investment in strong, local, and communal relationships. The internet secludes individuals from their social environments and may lead them to isolation and cause diminishing social capital. On the other hand “reinforcement” hypothesis argues that internet have changed the interactions pattern. Internet use and online communication help intensify the existing strong ties (Chen, 2013). “In sum, the researches indicates that social media is a complementary communication way that is used with existing social ties. People tend to communicate online with their existing ties. Regardless of two conflict views that have been exposed, this paper explores the relationship between internet as a social media and the quality and also quantity of social ties. The main goal of this study is to examine and understand the relationship between internet usage and weak ties, strong ties and core discussion network among students in Shiraz University. In fact the key questions of current study are: Does the internet increase the size of social network or decrease it? And how does internet relate to weak ties and strong ties?
    Framework: Researchers have paid increasingly attention to the core discussion network, the set of people an individual regularly turn to when he or she has important matters to discuss. The core discussion network is theorized to be a major source of support over the span of a person’s life, and it represents one of the most important ways that social networks are said to benefit everyday well-being. Core discussion network includes variety of relationships. Putnam’s definition of social network refers to connection among individuals - social networks which is shaped interaction’s norms and trustworthy. He examines two dimensions of social ties which is “Bonding” and “Bridging”. “Bonding social capital is good for undergirding specific reciprocity and mobilizes solidarity. Bridging network, are better for linkage to external assets and for information diffusion” (Putnam, 2000). Granovetter have investigated the mechanism of social interactions and have expressed the “Weak ties” theory. According to his idea “the strength of a tie is a combination of the amount of time that an individual spends for, and the emotional intensity, the intimacy and mutual confiding, and the reciprocal services which characterized the tie. So, weak ties include the people at the lowest level of interaction. The main function of weak ties is to providing information, communication and new job opportunities for individuals” (Granovetter, 1973). With a focus on new communication technologies such as the internet in social communications, we expect to observe both weak and strong ties in the online communications. Given the significance of weak ties in social networks, it’s important to examine role of weak ties and strong ties in the core discussion network and also find out how these ties does relates to internet usage.
    Hypothesis: Online communication and general internet usage is positively related to weak ties.
    Online communication and general internet usage is positively related to strong ties.
    Online communication and general internet usage is positively related to core discussion network.
    Online communication and general internet usage is positively related to range of core discussion network.
    Online communication and general internet usage is positively related to number of friend’s list in social network size.
    Methods
    This survey was conducted using multi-stages random sampling (n=404). In this research we divided two dimensions of using internet which is online communication and general internet usage. In current research dependent variables are core discussion network, range of core discussion network and size of social ties which include weak and strong ties. The important independent variables are online communication and general internet usage.
    Result and
    Conclusion
    The results indicate that 29 percent of respondents have at least 1-3 individual's weak ties in their core discussion network. While 61.1 percent of respondents have at least 1-3 individuals in their core discussion network, 15.1 percent of respondents have no strong tie in their core discussion network, which means strong ties are more common at the student’s core discussion network. Mean of general internet usage is 11.36 and mean of online communication is 5.63. Besides, 8.9 percent of students had no online communication. The results also examine that gender as a variable is correlated to type of social ties. Women tend to have more strong ties in their core discussion network in comparison to men. On the other hand men have more expanded core discussion network than women and they also have more weak ties in their core discussion network. Education is another variable that made changes in type of social ties. As a result, examines the more educated respondents, the more strong ties they would have in their core discussion network. The graduate students also have greater core discussion network than undergraduate students. The other results indicate that the number of weak ties is positively related to general internet usage. The number of strong ties is positively related to online communication but there is no significant relationship with general internet usage. Also, there is no significant relationship between range of core discussion network and online communication and general internet usage. There is also no significant relationship between core discussion network and online communication and general internet usage. Also, there is a significant high correlation between strong ties and core discussion network.
    Discussion and
    Conclusion
    Overall and based on data analysis we can argue that internet and social media are complementary communication way that can reinforce existing ties and relations. So we can disagree with the displacement theory which believed that internet led individuals to isolation and loneliness. The fact that how people use media can help us to explore pattern of their social ties. General internet usage and online communication do not harm sociability and also frequent use of online communication is associated with more extensive strong ties. In general, it seems that the internet does not affect the structure of the core discussion network and individuals do not choose members of their core discussion network via the internet. In other word, internet is more a means to keep in touch with pre-existing social ties in the youth's core discussion network.
    Keywords: Internet, weak ties, strong ties, core discussion network, student
  • Hamideh Molaei, Foroogh Mohammadi Page 95
    Introduction and statement of the problem: Increasing multicultural contacts in the age of globalization is inevitable. The point is particularly true because the transportation system as well as the Internet have profoundly facilitated people’s modes of communication. In this situation, social networking sites play a significant role. Social networking sites not only provided people with the opportunity to extend their relationships with their existing network of friend and families, but they have also facilitated expanding relationships with strangers. This function becomes important when they accelerate communications among people from different cultural backgrounds. In this regard, people interacting in these participatory platforms have the opportunity to increase their intercultural knowledge and consequently change their preexisting schemas towards other cultures. One of the leading social networking websites that has provided this opportunity is CouchSurfing.
    Research
    Objectives
    The primary objective of this paper is to investigate the modality of changing people’s intercultural schemas through participating in CouchSurfing social networking website. CouchSurfing was established as a hospitality service website in 2004. People participating in this website announce their readiness to host one or more people from other countries at their home. In doing so, the volunteer hosts require to subscribe to the site and specify their location. In addition, they must accept the website authentication rules in order to prevent possible misuses. In this regard, they can provide the visitors accommodation in their houses and show them around. One of the main benefits of this sort of hospitality exchange is attaining a better, closer and deeper understanding of other countries and cultures. In this case, there is a possibility for changing peoples’ schemas towards others. The CouchSurfing website has been selected as case study of the paper as its main function is increasing cultural sharing among people.
    Theoretical framework: In this article, we applied schema theory proposed by Endicott, et al. (2003) which explains how peoples’ intercultural schemas change either profoundly or superficially in different situations. According to Endicott et al (2003), schemas can be obtained through first-hand experiences as well as indirect way through observation or reading. Change of people’s schema is not always a conscious process. They change over the time through encountering new situations. In this regard, it is significant to understand to what extent people’s participation in CouchSurfing website – as an indicator of encountering new situation – can change the modality of their existing schemas.
    Methodology
    In order to examine the degree of change in people’s intercultural schemas through participating in CouchSurfing website, we applied qualitative content analysis. We selected four items including (1) self-representation; (2) building trust; (3) facilitating interaction among users; and, (4) increasing users’ knowledge about the visited cultures for further analysis. We studied both texts, features and functionality provided on website and profile content of 30 users based on purposive sampling to examine these items.
    Results And Discussion
    Each of the above four mentioned items were analyzed separately. Analyzing the website indicated that, in terms of self-representation, the website has provided a sphere for people to interact with their real identity. For example, some features of the website such as ‘about me’, ‘overview’, and ‘references’ are designed in a way that they make people to provide their real information. In addition, because the nature of the website is about hospitality exchange in the real world, people have to interact with each other with their actual identity and information. Otherwise, they will not be able to continue their activities in the website seriously. Moreover, the ‘references’ section reinforces this process. The reason is the fact that receiving positive feedback from other users requires that they show their real activities. In this case, the article suggests that the majority of the users interact with their real identities rather than through fake accounts. Accordingly, the level of trust among users will possibly increase. In addition, the article suggests that the CouchSurfing website applied good strategies for building trust among users. For example, it only verifies the users who provide their name, postal address and bank account information.
    It should be mentioned that the platform has some features such as ‘message’, ‘groups’, ‘events’, ‘discussion board’ and ‘sending request to become coach’ through them it facilitates interaction among members. In ‘message’ section, people have the opportunity to send message to other members of the website. In ‘group’ section, people are able to construct new groups based on their interests and to join the existing groups in the website to learn new thing about journey, tourism, other cultures and opportunities for travel in different places. The ‘discussion board’ is a unique opportunity for exchanging ideas and increasing multicultural knowledge and competencies. It is important to mention that the topics in discussion boards are not limited to travel and tourism. They contain other topics including multicultural activities such as language exchange.
    Finally, the paper suggests that taking part in the website has provided users with the opportunity to increase their knowledge about other cultures. Moreover, by interacting in the website people’s schemas towards other cultures and countries will possibly change. While this change is superficial rather than profound, it is a very good point of departure in multicultural contacts. Analyzing the users’ references for their hosts generally, and for their Iranian hosts, particularly, indicated that the majority of feedbacks contained positive orientations. Through the positive references that are based on their real trip, the members describe the level of hospitality of the culture they have visited. The important point about writing these references is that they provide other members, who have not visited the mentioned places and people, to gain new perspectives towards other cultures.
    Conclusion
    The results indicated that the CouchSurfing website was successful to provide its users with different information regarding other cultural conditions and to increase their knowledge regarding other cultures. Accordingly, the article suggests that while the CouchSurfing website facilitates changing people’s schemas in superficial rather than profound level, it has been successful to do a starting point in this process. With reading more information and having more interaction in the website, there will be more possibilities for people to change some of their intercultural schemas more strongly.
    Keywords: CouchSurfing, Intercultural Schemas, Intercultural Stereotypes