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سال دهم شماره 27 (زمستان 1392)

Climate is one of the most important factors in sustainable architecture and urban design. Climatic conditions have become a strong factor in architectural design process and designers must consider certain principles in that field. An appropriate urban environment has to take the factor of climate into consideration in an efficient way. This will lead to the creation of a better living environment with open, naturally-lit spaces and fresh air movement. An efficient climatic design can have a specific impact on reducing the operating costs of an urban environment. This is specifically significant when considering hat the climatic design principles will help reduce electricity consumption in buildings and improve the environment and strengthen the economy by cutting down the need for fossil fuels and nuclear energy. Using principles of climatic design in urban environmental structures and residential contexts results in better living conditions for residents. The present article specially addresses this issue. It focuses on low-height residential contexts and the solutions for climate conditions in urban environments. This article’s hypothesis declares that climatic architectural design guidelines and solutions in low-height residential contexts are closely interrelated in such a way that an efficient climate design could lead to a proper climatic conditions in the environment. “Temperate” climate has been emphasized in the present article because it has two important elements that affect architecture: the amount of humidity and the amount of rain. In temperate climates the traditional architecture has found methods to be adopted based on climate conditions throughout history. To reduce the humidity effects, buildings have been scattered all around and empty spaces have been accommodated around them.This is meant to help the wind spiral through - what will accordingly provide a better air movement in the environment. Also buildings have been built upper than the ground to avoid the soil humidity. To receive the sunlight, buildings have found a proper orient to the south axes, and the best proportion for the forms is considered as 1:1/6 in east-west direction. In order to choose cities in temperate climate with very similar climate conditions, 37 degrees north latitude has been chosen as a basic line. And the cities beside it all around the world with similar conditions have been selected on the basis of most important climatic factors including angle of the sunshine, temperature, humidity, wind conditions and the amount of rain. The selected cities include Washington D.C, Richmond and Virginia Beach in the USA, Antalya in Turkey, Rasht in Iran, Seoul in South Korea and Niigata in Japan. The present research is meant to find answers to the following questions: •What are the main characteristics of residential contexts in selected cities with temperate climate? •What are climate considerations for designing residential contexts in these areas? •How much are architectural designs in line with the city’s climate? •What are proper climatic design patterns in low height residential contexts? This article follows a comparative analysis method. Therefore, by analyzing the samples of the contexts of residential areas, the principles on proper climatic types for low-height residential contexts have been identified. A comparative analysis of samples in the research shows that the principles necessary to achieve a suitable climate model in residential contexts include the following guidelines and solutions with specific relations to each other: Decentralized organization of buildings can be considered a necessary solution to obtain a suitable model of climatic design. This can largely lead to other solutions. Scattered buildings help provide better conditions to use natural winds to enhance the quality of the environment. The blowing of wind through empty spaces between blocks reduces the high humidity of the environment. The use of natural light in the building as a fundamental element of a climatic design can be accommodated in low density environments. In high density environments, natural light can be accommodated by organizing east-west axis linear blocks. In compressed urban neighborhood contexts, it is more difficult to organize blocks in east west axis and that leads to a disadvantaged condition. Landscaping can be used as another design tool. Planting trees at the southern part of the building yard provides shade against sunlight and helps reduce heat in summers. Also trees can act as obstacles in front of cold winter winds. Furthermore, steep roofs beside their application for rainy weather can be a cultural element in architecture.

Urban transportation is one of the most important issues in urban planning and urban design. A transportation system can affect the surrounding areas in different ways. The effects can be seen around stations or along transportation corridors and in some cases can be seen as a combination of both. Following the emergence of the notion of environmental quality, the impact of the assessment of urban transportation systems on the quality and value of adjacent areas has become a remarkable topic in urban issues, because it has led to various and sometimes opposite results in different environments. Basically, there is a close relationship between access to transit and urban development. Better access, more mobility options and lower transportation costs are some factors which have made these areas more attractive and more developed. In fact, access to public transportation can improve accessibility to urban activity and employment centers, retail districts and other facilities. As a result, a public transit station can affect the quality of urban tissue and eventually the development of the neighborhoods around metro stations, directly or indirectly. In other words, public transit stations can play an important role in the development of surrounding areas especially from the economic aspect. This opportunity is very important particularly in blighted urban areas that face many obstacles over the attraction of investment for regeneration and renewal. Therefore, an adequate mechanism to locate and manage public transit stations can propel the low quality urban tissues where economic problems are rampant to livable and dynamic areas. In a metropolis city like Tehran, public transportation systems especially the metros are being developed rapidly due to serious problems in personal transportation services. Thus a better understanding of the impacts of metro stations on adjacent areas can help with their development as more purposeful facilities. Also, such impact assessment studies can improve the advantages of developing metro systems, as well as reducing the negative consequences on the urban tissues. On the other hand, this discussion is very specific in Tehran, because unequal environmental qualities between north and south of Tehran and also an unbalanced distribution of resources and facilities over time have made an obvious socio-economic gap in this city. In fact, socio-economic disparities between northern and southern neighborhoods have transformed Tehran from a sustainable city to a capital with economic polarization and social segregation. This is to the degree that the central and southern regions have gradually changed to low-income areas with low quality urban tissues, and in contrast, the northern regions with high-prices of estates have changed to areas popular to the upper classes. Therefore, a field study on this issue in Tehran to consider the current socio-economic gap between affluent north and poor south can help draw a comparison between the impacts of metro stations in two different urban areas and subsequently it can assess the role of metro stations in reducing the socio-economic gap in this city. This study seeks answers to these important questions: Which areas of Tehran Metropolis (affluent areas or poor areas) have gained more benefits from opening metro stations? Can we consider the development of metro rail system as a solution to reduce the socio-economic gap between north and south Tehran? The researchers have presumed that the poor areas have received more benefits than affluent areas. Therefore, opening metro stations can improve the economic dynamics of southern neighborhoods of Tehran and subsequently it can integrate the environmental quality of north and south Tehran. Therefore, this process can reduce the socio-economic gap in Tehran. The accuracy of this hypothesis has been tested with a market study around Shariati Metro Station (in northern Tehran) and Shohada Metro Station (in southern Tehran) through measuring changes in housing prices so as to obtain changes in environmental quality before and after opening the stations. Examination of effects of proximity to the metro stations for these two neighborhoods proves that proximity to metro stations has a positive effect on the value of properties in southern Tehran, but a negative effect in northern neighborhoods. In fact, results show that the metro stations have a consistently higher positive impact on the property values which are located in poor areas compared to the affluent areas. Therefore, with the increase in the value of properties in poor neighborhoods on the southern areas and subsequently improving the quality of those areas, Tehran's long-standing gap in socio-economic contexts can be reduced and consequently Tehran can become an integrated city without any segregation and polarization.

The military architecture of Qajar dynasty is one of the technical issues in the Iranian history of architecture which has not yet been considered professionally. As a Qajarid fort, Arch of Alishah in Tabriz is one of the material culture evidences for Russo- Persian conflicts. On the basis of historical texts, this monument was the fort of Tabriz during the Qajar era. Archaeologically, the Arch of Alishah in Tabriz is remains of an incomplete Ilkhanid mausoleum which had being constructed in 1318- 1339 in the central yard of the architectural complex of the cathedral mosque of Alishah of Tabriz. Under Ali A. Sarfaraz’s archaeological excavations in 1970s, the architectural remains and also plans of an Ilkhanid monument had been unearthed which had no wall in the south. This means that there was no Mihrab wall for Qibla. But, this plan had an arched portal joint with tow minarets. It seems that such a plan had been changed later and the portal with minarets replaced by the current Arch of Tabriz constructed in the south towards Qibla. Architecturally, this project became incomplete by reason of the collapse of its height curved vault. All of these facts mean that the current Arch of Alishah in Tabriz is not the remains of the same famous mosque of Alishah. But, archaeologically, such remains were situated in the east side of the current Arch when all of them, unfortunately, had been destroyed in 1997! The incomplete gigantic project of Arch retrieved in the Qajarid era when the Russo- Persian conflict over Caucasus and the northern lands of Azerbaijan imposed Abbas Mirza’s army to build a new fort and garrison for Tabriz the crown prince’s city of the Qajar dynasty. As luck would have it, the military architecture of Qajarid Iran has not yet been more considered by professional historians of Iranian architecture. Geopolitically, although, the political map of Iran have been changed during the reign of Qajar dynasty as a consequence of historical campaigns of Iran in opposition to the offensive Tsarist Russia (1804-1828) and British Empire (1857) and by means of historical treaties of Golestan, Turkmen Chay and Paris. Finally, the current political map of Iran established after 1918. Consequently, any study on the Qajarid military architecture provides information over the both socio- economic and political processes of Iran during these times. The Arch of Alishah in Tabriz can be regarded as one of the basic such military monuments. This fortress had been constructed urgently, by no programmed plan, on the ruins of Ilkhanid Arch of Tabriz by reason of the Russo- Persian conflict over Caucasus and the north of Azerbaijan. For this purpose, the Iranian head quarter of army just added some new buildings to that Ilkhanid monument to give her a new military function. All of these mean that the Qajarid layers at the Arch of Alishah in Tabriz were some of the basic and outstanding historical evidences and material cultures remained from the Russo- Persian conflicts. Alas, none of them have been remained during the past eight decades by means of stylistic techniques of restoration! In addition to the Ilkhanid relics, archaeological excavations at the Arch of Alishah, under Ali A. Sarfaraz in 1971, uncovered military architectural remains and old weapons all belonging to Qajar dynasty. These remains are presented as the fort of Abbas Mirza Farmanfarma where ammunitions of Iranian troops were made, during the Russo- Persian campaigns. Unfortunately, the alienation processes of Qajarid identity at the Arch of Alishah in Tabriz have been formed by the Iranian antiquities law of 1930 which did not cover Qajarid relics; and the stylistic restoration methods too. And as the result, Iranian history of Russo- Persian conflicts has lost some of its material culture and archaeological evidences forever. Aesthetically, although the further Qajarid structures to the Ilkhanid Arch of Tabriz had no architectural values and building innovations, their socio- political values in the Iranian history of resistance in opposition to the 19th century imperialism and colonialism should be emphasized. In the conservation and restoration process of historical monuments this means that socio- cultural aspects besides socio- spiritual values in historical contexts should be approached in addition to aesthetics, art and techniques. As the result, the stylistic restoration should be regarded as one of the destructive and harmful methods for historical monuments have some different historical- functional layers and additional structures. Such monuments reflect material cultures and historical events which have been accepted in form of additional layers and joint structures during the time. Then, evidently, the stylistic methods of restoration causes misunderstanding of history by remove of material cultures of history. Archaeologically, in conclusion, the usage of stylistic restoration for long term historical monuments of Iran have different periodization and presents various historical functions all in form of additional structures should be regarded as destructive methods and harmful techniques, as presented here on the example of Arch of Alishah in Tabriz.

Courtyard form is a very ancient element of a building structure in Iran and has been in place in Iranian houses for ages. A look at the plan of old houses in Iran as well as other countries in the region show that the structure of buildings are formed around the yard with several strategies. Solar radiation entering the courtyard space is received by different surfaces and will affect the thermal conditions of the buildings. The amount of received radiation generally depends on several factors including climatic conditions, location, orientation, the surrounding environment, proportion, the time during the year and the form of the courtyard. The absorbed solar radiation will increase the surface temperatures and consequently the temperature of the adjacent zones will be affected. This effect on thermal conditions in the courtyard space is reflected on the thermal behavior of the surrounding spaces. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure an optimum amount of shadow and irradiation in the courtyard space for an efficient courtyard performance through the year. It is evident that this can be achieved through properly configuring and proportioning the courtyard’s form and surfaces. Using an improper pattern not only will cause poor courtyard performance but will also increase the cooling and heating loads of the building because of the existence of too much shadow when solar radiation is needed or receiving plenty of irradiation when it is not desirable. The courtyard building is suitable for use and enjoyable if special arrangements are made in the design of the building. This includes the internal envelope’s finishing and materials, as well as the proportions of the physical parameters of the courtyard form, which are the most important element and the focus of the present study. Dezful is one of the cities of Khuzestan province in southwestern Iran which is located on latitude 32° 22' north and 48° 24' east. This city has severe summer climate conditions and on some days the temperature reaches 52 degree centigrade. In traditional buildings of Dezful, different passive design strategies have been used to control climate conditions and obtain thermal comfort inside the building. One of these strategies is creating a micro climate condition by using courtyards as a design pattern. For the present study, 15 cases of the courtyards in traditional buildings of Dezful have been selected. Generally, when more solar radiation is received in building, solar heat gain would be greater. Since solar radiation is the only thermal factor considered in this study, cooling loads for building is referred to the variation in the obtained solar radiation. Two different indices have been used to classify cases. These indices have been introduced as N1 (ratio of width to length of the courtyard) which defines elongation of form and N (ratio of length to height of courtyard) which shows the depth of form. From each classification, one case is selected and used for this study. The investigated cases have been modeled using three-dimensional simulation by Townscope software. An image processing is used to calculate the amount of shadows in different proportions on courtyard surface levels by Imagej software. The amounts of shadows have been measured in different months of the year on vertical and horizontal surfaces. Generally, in summer, the solar radiation received by horizontal surfaces is more than that obtained when the surface is vertical. Therefore, shadows on vertical and horizontal surfaces ave been measured separately. The total amount of shadows of each sample has been compared in the research with the climate requirement table of Dezful and the best sample regarding the needed periods for irradiation and shadow have been introduced. The optimum ratios of a courtyard building are defined as that which ensures minimum energy requirement throughout the year to achieve comfort in the building. Results show that courtyards with length to width ratio of 1 to 1.4 (near to square form) and height to length ratio of 1.1 to 1.2 had the most proper shade on different courtyard surfaces. Results also showed that for the purpose of reducing the cooling load in summer, deep and square shape courtyard forms were the most preferable. The self-shading of the courtyard building acts to reduce the need for cooling by an average of about 4%. By using this proportion, the amount of shadow on the courtyard will be optimized. This will accordingly result in reducing the temperature of the walls – what would help the cooling load in summer and also maintain warmth in winter. Courtyards with suggested proportion in buildings make great advantages for thermal condition of building. However, it must be mentioned that this passive strategy is not enough for achieving thermal comfort in building. Rather, a series of other strategies must be used to create more favorable thermal condition. They include thermal mass, proper insulation, good orientation and ventilation.

The Safavid dynasty established the Twelver school of Shia Islam as the official religion of their empire and this gave Shia Muslims a chance of expressing their Islamic views, even through arts. Notable for this era was a renewed attention to Ashura as an inevitable part of Shia culture. Ashura is respected by Shias throughout the world as a day of mourning. It marks the anniversary of the martyrdom of Imam Hossein (AS), the third Shia Imam and the grandchild of Prophet Mohammad (SA), together with 72 of his companions in a famous battle in Karbala desert, now located in Iraq, in the seventh century. In fact, Ashura has had a great influence on Shia culture across history. Interestingly, it has now become customary for followers of other faiths to join Shias in Ashura mourning rituals. The influence of Ashura on Safavid dynasty and Isfahan, the most important capital of the dynasty, was quite dramatic. An example of this influence may be using Sangabs (lavers) in mosques and passages of cities, in which some of the deep rooted Islamic arts such as poetry, calligraphy and carving were featured with Ashura being their main theme. The present paper has conducted a comparative analysis over the lavers of Isfahan which have remained from Qajar and Safavid eras to determine the influence of Ashura culture. Fifty four lavers in Isfahan, mostly from the Qajar dynasty, were studied and 39 of them contained inscriptions and designs on Ashura. The investigations began with lavers remaining from the era of Shah Safi І (1038-1052) in the Jameh mosque of Isfahan. It should be mentioned that the lavers from the Safavid era date back to the seventeenth century and the lavers form the Qajar era date back to early nineteenth century. Lavers were made in order to appreciate Ashura. They were also meant to remind the Shias of the martyrs of Karabala. In fact, the lavers were used during the Safavid and Qajar eras to carry the messages of Shia religious art and to keep the memories of Karbala alive. They were also a means to preserve the spirit of sacrifice and virtuous deeds among Shia Muslims. Studies show that the lavers in Isfahan contain many beautiful patterns and decorative calligraphies. They are great representatives of the sacred art of Shia Islam. Calligraphic decorations are the main patterns carved on the lavers and most of them are written in Nastaleeq script and some of them are in Thulth script. The main subjects of these scripts are sometimes a poem about Ashura or the name of the laver’s donator. This article investigates and introduces the features and characteristics of Isfahan lavers as examples of the religious art of Shia Islam as well as the contributions of Ashura to Shia art.

Continuation of experiences in the historical Iranian architecture used to traditionally pass from one generation to the next. The application of such experiences, when facing new requirements and situations, was a platform for a rebirth of new works, which were generally accepted by the society. Isfahan’s historic bridges are examples of the development of such processes which reached their peak during the Safavid era. This thrive, with building of new bridges and restoring old ones, happened as a result of economical prosperity and growth in Isfahan, which was the capital of Iran during the Safavid era. Khajoo bridge, among all others, has a different form and characteristics and these differences raise questions about the formation of this bridge. This is based on the accepted concepts and experiences noted in the construction of other bridges at that time. Examples include common traditions and ideas taken into account in other bridges. Primarily, the present research studies the characteristics of Khajoo Bridge that have made it stand out among all other bridges and as well as the features that have led to the creation of a new set of behavioral and physical characteristics in the building. In order to find the appropriate answers to these questions, the researchers have focused on three basic architectural systems: function, physic and structure. By studying and comparing historic bridges in Isfahan with other bridges in Iran, it seems obvious that the success and the importance of these bridges can be best characterized by these basic architectural systems. It should be noted that these three systems are associated with Vitruvius three rules (effectiveness, stability and beauty). The meaning of function in this research is related to the way the bridges were connected to the city, how they fitted in to the urban fabric, and how they communicated with the network of access points connected to the entrance and exit of the city. It is also important to identify the roles of the bridge and their special incorporated services since the bridges were not only built for transit purposes but they have also had other functions, as well. The bridges have been used across history as a dam, a defense structure and as a space where people could gather, meet and socialize. They have also been used for channeling the water and helping with rotation of water mills, controlling waterways, and obtaining merchandise taxes. The purpose of analyzing physical form of the bridges is to identify the architectural result of function and what would become a shell, structure and shape of the building. This part of discussion includes the investigation on the division of the facade, plan and identification of corresponding areas. Also structural system in this research means analyzing skeletal structure and transition of forces. The approach of this study is basic. The method of research is descriptive-analytical. The research data has been gathered through library sources and field observations. In this way, various traditions of building bridges in the region according to historical precedence were studied through the mechanism of comparative and mostly qualitative research. In discussing the function, Khajoo Bridge similar to Shahrestan, Marnan and Allahverdykhan bridges, created connections to southern towns and villages. Also, during the construction period of Khajoo Bridge, the Zoroastrians were living in the adjacent neighborhood and this bridge connected this religious community to the city. Prior to that, there was a similar role identified between Marnan Bridge and the Armenian community. On the other hand, Khajoo Bridge has a defined beginning and an end, attempting to connect citizens to Takhtefoolad. This property existed in Allahverdikhan Bridge (Dolatkhaneh Safavi to Hezarjarib) and Jooei Bridge (North gardens to Sadaatabad Garden and Ayenekhaneh and Haftdast palaces). In addition to its transmission role, Khajoo Bridge like Shahrestan, Marnan and Allahverdikhan Bridge had the role of a gateway to the city. Another function that was especially associated with this bridge was becoming the dam. Another feature is having different spaces in its different parts. This property is affected by the concern to accommodate the presence of human in the space of architectural designs. Such characteristic of the bridge began to take form with the creation and integration services. These spaces can also be found in Rahdarkhaneh in Shahrestan Bridge, Saqqakhaneh in Marnan and Allahverdikhan Bridge. Such attention to human presence in space, specifically in Khajoo Bridge, has been made by Combination Bridge with pavilion; creating eastern stairs, and platforms between arches and recreational space for the pedestrians. In discussing the physical form (body), the evolution of non-geometric and organic bridge (Shahrestan Bridge) to geometric bridge (Khajoo Bridge) has been highlighted in the present research. Among these bridges only Allahverdikhan and Khajoo Bridge have two level aspects with eastern and western facades due to their porous porches. In terms of division plans and facades, Khajoo Bridge has evolved as a sample for the bridges in the region specifically for its emphasis on the early, the middle and the end of the body. When discussing the structure of the bridge, it is interesting to note that a design that had been used to make candle foundation in Marnan Bridge continued and evolved in Allahverdikhan and Khajoo Bridge. Another feature is the transmission of forces in Khaoo Bridge which is very similar to Allahverdikhan Bridge with some differences in the lower levels. In fact, in Khajoo Bridge the lower platform occupies much more surface that leads to a better transmission of forces.In the end, the continuity of traditions in shaping the form of Khajoo Bridge has been detected. The results thereof are based on specific principles like the continuity of common traditions, as well as the conditions and the needs of the community. Identifying these can possibly be effective in applying conservation methods, as well as creating and giving life to architectural work, specifically to bridges.

The methods that Iranian experts used to restore murals before the 60s were not based on the methods introduced by Italy’s Council of Experts (IsMEO). Examples of such methods included removing the overpaint as well as putting plaster on the murals. Hossein Aqajani-Esfahani, an Iranian expert who worked with IsMEO over the restoration of historical sites in Isfahan, says using plaster and removing the overpaint were common methods to restore murals in Iran in the early years that experts started to restore the murals in the country. However, he says, such methods ignore the value of the originality of murals as well as their intended functions. Aqajani-Esfahani has emphasized that the murals could have been better restored because they needed a special treatment specifically considering that many of them like the ones by masters such as Mosavvar-ol-Maleki, Javad Rostam Shirazi and others which were used in historical sites in Isfahan and Shiraz contained several layers of paint. The present research is meant to shed light on the researches that have been carried out into the restoration of murals in Iran. A main target has also been to find out whether there were any researchers over this subject before the 60s. The ultimate objective is to emphasize the need for such researches in order to promote the expertise of restoration of murals in Iran. All these made the researchers of the present article to have a close look at the traditional methods of restoration of murals in Iran before the 60s. By considering the above, the most important question now is whether the methods used for restoration of murals very really effective or not.