فصلنامه جامعه شناسی کاربردی
سال بیست و چهارم شماره 2 (پیاپی 50، تابستان 1392)

Entering the twenty-first century, the world witnessed several major developments that affect all aspects of human life, and in the midst of one of the most challenging changes, it is a change in the cognitive dimension and more precisely, identity of the people. In the past, never was identity an important issue of the day and had only a designated path guided by traditional beliefs and values, which were themselves supported by such social institutions as family and religion. However, new identities have emerged as media, technology and the overall process of modernization and development make individual identity a more salient phenomenon. National identity brings solidarity among individuals and emphasizes their collective purpose. Governments rely on national identity, and support it through their own value system by training, socialization, advertising and other means to induce unite their citizens. The key variable in defining national identity is values and social norms of a society. Industrialization of urban environments, technological development, cultural products, and the increasing use of new communicational insturments, has led to fundamental changes in cultural life of the people (Aghdam Alizadeh et al, 2010).This paper is an investigation in the status of national identity among Isfahani citizens and those socio-cultural variables which affect national identity. The method used in this survey is based on the objectives and research questions. Data has been collected through questionnaires, which is consisted of two parts. They assess situational variables related to dependent and independent variables. A total of 26 items were used to measure the dependent variable (national identity). Also, 11 items were dedicated to situational variables, 8 items to feeling of inequality, 6 items to individual variables, and 10 items to cultural capital. Research population according to the requirement of the research questions, include all residents of Isfahan who are over 18 years old. The sample size of 384 was based on Cochran's formula.Discussion of Results & The result shows that a significant reverse relationship exists between respondent's sense of national identity and inequality. Respondents feel more attached to their national identity if they feel less inequality and vice versa. Correlation coefficient also revealed a significant negative correlation between individualism and national identity. In fact, with the rise of individualism respondent's sense of belonging to dimensions of national identity decreases. Also, there is a significant reverse relationship between national identity and cultural capital respondents. In fact, in this study higher levels of cultural capital lead to a declined level of national identity. The Pearson correlation coefficients for the variables of national identity shows that there is a significant negative relationship between the media consumption and national identity. Finally, Relationship between income and national identity is also significantly negative, meaning that respondents with higher levels of income belong to the elements of national identity less seriously. Results of regression analysis indicate that the independent variable of individualism, has a significant relationship with national identity. Feeling of inequality and media consumption variables had the greatest impact on national identity and cultural capital variable is related national identity with the minimal impact of just 0.04 %. Overall, findings of this study show that most of the research variables have reverse relationships with national identity except age.

There is no agreement on what city and urban lifestyle are. It is not just about minimum factors that each city must have, but also about social interactions, social needs and individual perceptions which are dependent on cultural characteristics and geographical details. Generally speaking, cities have complex systems of transportation, sanitation, utilities, land usage, social connections and economic actions. These systems are always in the process of changing and developing. So, development of cities leads to new lifestyles and create what we may call urban life. Development of urban life causes concentration of equipments and resources in cities. Also, it is clear that a mere focus on quantitative facts of urban development is not enough to get to the efficient way of life. Hence researchers and managers have decided to pay more attention to factors which are more related to quality of urban life. In other words, after an initial attention to quantitative development of cities, the concept of quality of life is now getting attention in terms of qualitative factors. Due to this shift, a great deal of scientific and practical studies have been conducted and many new things have been revealed. Medical, sociological, psychological, environmental and economic points of views led to create new indexes and multidimensional frameworks. More than that, each city arrives at special findings which are linked to its local specifications. Because of diversity of results in different cases and cities, reaching to a shared and unique conclusion for urban quality of life is not easy. So the purpose of this study is to centralize and summarize the results of various studies on this topic in Iran. Meta-analysis is a research method for arriving at a specific knowledge from different studies. This research method was introduced in the late 1970s and soon became famous because of its abilities to get clear conclusions. This paper has analyzed Iranian scientific studies on quality of life, which were published until 2012. Meta-analysis is a tool for integrating scattered results and achieving to a new understanding in order to develop boundaries of knowledge. Identifying patterns among study results, contrasting and combining different studies, identifying a common measure of size effects, overcoming bias and doing systematic reviews are different benefits and applications of this method. Some steps are taken in order to get a reliable meta-analysis. First of all, it was decided to find keywords which are related to urban quality of life. Based on ideas of experts and those keywords, all Persian scientific databases which could have articles related to quality of urban life were searched. Initially, 45 articles were included in the sample. Later on, however, some of these articles which were not scientifically acceptable or belonged to medical fields were excluded. After this process, 27 articles were selected, of which 17 articles are published in scientific peer-reviewed journals and the remaining 10 article in other journals. Based on these categories, it was decided to separate results into two different types: "results of studies published in peer-reviewed journals" and "result of studies published in non-peer-reviewed journals". After that, specific findings of articles were written and summarized. For doing this, 9 important dimensions were chosen which were used for filtering the articles. Table 1 provides a view of these indicators.Discussion of Results & Diversity of studies shows that Central, Northeast and Eastern provinces of Iran have more researchers who are interested in studying urban quality of life. Results showed that there are positive and significant relationships between social capital, higher income, being employed and urban quality of life. However, the relationship between gender and urban quality of life is not significant. Educational levels, gender, age, marital status and employment status are the common indicators which most of the researchers have used in their research. Social capital is one of the most important concepts which is used in correlation tests and results proved that there are significant and controversial relationships between social capital and urban quality of life in different cities.Unfortunately more than 60% of studies have not mentioned their research method. In addition, the issue of validity and reliability of these studies was not talked about either. Hence generating numerical facts, which is essential to measure size effects of these variables, is not possible. So, one of the most important findings of our meta-analysis is missed. This research shows that paying more attention to important parts of research articles, which directly effects quality of meta-analysis, is essentially important. Thus, enacting strict rules in journals about data gathering and article writing could be recommended to protect quality of future articles. Table 2 shows reliability and validity of the two different article types.Taking a multi-dimensional view and using combinatorial indexes are strength points of analyzed studies and neglecting sociological dimensions is weakness point of these studies. This research shows that Iranian researchers of quality of life focus on quantitative methods more than qualitative ones. But it is believed that using different and complex methods could be the way to create frameworks which are closer to real life. Table 3 shows situation of the two different groups of articles regarding different dimensions. Urban quality of life is a complex variable whose precise measurement is very difficult. Considering and rebuilding international frameworks for evaluating of this concept is a valuable way to do research. Some of the analyzed studies did in fact try to make specific and creative frameworks for evaluation of urban quality of life, paying more attention to specifications and characteristics of Iranian cities. So, for future research, we recommend designing native and practical models which could be adapted to Iranian culture.

The growth of science and technology tend to convert society to a learning society and enjoy its profits and also cope with its challenges (Edwards, 2002; Jarvis, 2008; Unesco, 2005). In response to questions such as "what is a learning society?" And "what are features of a learning society?" researchers have noted that understanding the concept of learning society requires attention to lifelong learning objectives or outcomes (Tuomi, 2005). These goals can be obtained by individual, social and economic developments. Today, despite the differences of opinion between the professionals about the purpose of lifelong learning, all believe that in a learning society, individuals are encouraged to undertake learning in different locations to realize the above three developments. They have proposed different models about learning society. Edwards (1997) have divided these models based on their philosophical foundations into three: learning society as an educated society, as a learning market, and as learning networks. Reviewing the learning society model, many scholars have noted that there is not a single ideal model for learning society, which could be suitable for all countries. Therefore each country should supply a specific strategic model of learning society that fits the cultural and national heritage of its nation (Tuijnman, 2002, p 26). According to the notification, the present paper seeks to examine the concept and model of learning society for Iran. This research is a developmental study to design a model based on the philosophical foundations of Islam and Iranian culture. Also, it is a descriptive qualitative survey study. The Statistical population consists of two groups. The first group includes managers, assistants and faculty members working in the public universities in the cities of Isfahan, Shiraz and Tehran in the academic year 2010-2011. The criteria for their selection were a history of teaching, management and research on issues related to the research topic. The second group includes professionals working in higher education and research institutions affiliated to the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology in Iran. Potential sample size included 98 individuals who were identified as informants based on purposive sampling strategies and chain approach. They were all invited to participate in the interview. Finally, 24 individuals (9 male and 15 female administrators and faculty experts) announced their agreement. They were all interviewed. We analyzed interviews using thematic categorization and the results were analyzed by direct and indirect quotations in the research report. Discussion of Results & With the turn of the third millennium, the Iranian society has chosen a knowledge-based development as its path towards development. In this country, the community members should keep their skills up to date, not only because of the natural need but also for being able to be actively involved in generation, transmission, distribution and use of knowledge. In other words, they must become a learning society. This society must be based on the philosophical foundations of Islam. The main message of this religion is (Aqra’) which asks people to read and learn from the cradle to the grave. According to Islam, The ultimate goal of people in a learning society is to be the servants of God. Therefore, learning is considered as a duty for every Muslim at any time and at any age. And the community should provide the opportunity to perform this task. However, Iranian society is a learning society that has a balanced look to the three goals of learning throughout life (Individual development, economic development and social development). Iranian-learning society is a community with the features listed below: This society: • considers the right to receive education • and develops equal learning opportunities to establish social justice • supports the collective rationality and is both critic and receptive of critic • encourages active citizenship in a global and national level to achieve the ultimate goal of being servant of God.• provides learning opportunities to help people feel they have reached to the learning and teaching right • enhances learning motivations by different methods.• fosters the ability of self-directed learning and learning how to learn. Educational Features in this society include: • interconnectivity among different sectors of formal education • Informal education is developed to suit the needs of all people. • appropriate learning strategies to take non-formal learning into account. • qualitative and quantitative developments of learning opportunities at the same time• The potential of ICT for development of national and global learning networks is used. Cultural features of this society include: • citizens extracts their procedures and instructions from principles and teachings of Islam. Economical features of this society include: • learning opportunities are provided to help people keep up to date with their knowledge and skills and to supply their personal life and skilled manpower for economic developmentThe comparison between this model and other models shows that Iranian Learning Society is a Humanist Society which is based on Islamic philosophical foundations; hence this is different from Western models. It is necessary to note that the current cultural, social and educational conditions are not desirable to provide the basis for development of a learning society in Iran. Lack of belief in science and knowledge among all people, reduced learning motivation, inattention to orders of Islam, problems in the educational system are, among others, a few obstacles to realize this model.

Happiness refers to the cognitive and affective evaluations of one’s own life and is defined in terms of life satisfaction, presence of positive affect and absence of negative affect. Being happy is a response to how to live, especially for the young people, who build the future of this country and follow a purposeful life. Happiness produces passion, emotion, motivation, seeking and effort in youth's life. Importance of happiness and its role on youth’s life is the reason behind doing this research. Also it can play an accelerating role on the process of society’s development. Almost everyone has thoughts about happiness and it seems that everybody has created their own idea of it. Likewise, in science, each discipline has developed its especial view on happiness: psychologists see it as matter of personality, biologists as the result of chemical processes, philosophers see it mostly in a moral context, and sociologists think of it as a social condition. What is remarkable about the sociological view towards happiness is that it provides a common understanding. Where happiness is usually defined as a purely individual or psychological phenomenon, sociologists insist that happiness is socially grounded. Here we consider the effect of three independent variables, namely, economic capital, cultural capital and social capital on happiness. Most of the people believe that having money and a good job can increase their happiness and life satisfaction. Aristotle believed that wealth is a necessary ingredient of happiness (1991). Stoics, in contrast, believed that material possessions and wealth are in no way required for happiness. Research, all in all, suggests that an adequate amount of money is a necessary condition for happiness, albeit not a sufficient one. Diener and Seligman (2002) found in their study on very happy individuals that every single one of them had excellent social relationships. Quantity and, more importantly, quality of friendships correlate positively with happiness, and perceived loneliness is robustly linked to depression. In light of this and other parallel findings, Reis and Gable (2003) have suggested that good social relationships may be the single most important source of happiness. The method of this research is survey. 380 individuals among the 15-29-year-old residents of Babolsar city constitute our sample size. The sample size is based on stratified cluster sampling and research data was gathered through two kinds of questionnaires: Modified Oxford happiness questionnaire and a researcher-made questionnaire for measuring economic, cultural and social capitals. 52.4 percent of respondents were girls and 47.6 percent were boys and the mean of age was 22.58. Content validity of questionnaires was assured. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was calculated. The results of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient show that questions are internally correlated. The analysis of data is carried out at descriptive and inferential statistics levels. It should be mentioned that the variables such as level of cultural capital and social capital are examined through Likert scale. Total scores in each scale is calculated and considered as interval variables. Discussion of Results and Descriptive findings show that rate of happiness and all three kinds of capitals are on average. Findings also show that all three capitals have meaningful and direct relationships with happiness. Findings of multiple regression technique show that the rate of social capital has the most impact on happiness. After that, cultural capital has the most effect. Through path analysis, is became clear that cultural capital has a great effect on happiness in an indirect way. Likewise, social capital has a great effect on happiness. That means by reinforcing this kind of capital among people we have a happier society. Overall, R squared was 22/5 which shows that social capital, cultural capital and economic capital explain 22/5 percent of happiness variance.Other researches like Richard Rose (2000) concluded that social capital has greater effect on happiness than other variables. He believed that social capital includes social relational networks, friendships and social trust. Social networks provide a great amount of social and mental support. In our research, economic capital has the least effect on happiness among independent variables. Various studies show that money is necessary to happiness but only a certain amount of money. Some researchers believe that by increasing their wealth, people become happier. However, after getting to a certain point, we no longer observe more happiness.

By accepting this basic fact that human needs are diverse and our resources to satisfy them are limited, we can acknowledge that all communities are prone to conflict and it is, according to Simmel, an integral part of social life. Conflict, together with reconciliation, constitute forms of human community. The question is why in some countries conflict is, regulated, managed and even play an effective role in integration and social order, while in other countries it exists in a variety of mild to severe forms and is experienced through violent measures. Why do violent conflicts arise in some given communities? What are the important accessories of social cooperation, social harmony and conflict management? In the classical and contemporary theories of Marx to Dahrendorf, Collins and Turner, the most important variable in the conflict literature is inequality (Blue and Blue, 1982). According to Bangura, inequality among different social groups is a stronger source of violent conflicts in comparison to inequality between individuals. When inequality in income, wealth and access to services or political power is based on group differences, then mobilization of individuals to perform collective action considered an important issue (Bangura, 2006). As well, Mueller suggests that income inequality lead to political violence. The dissatisfaction of income distribution is a necessary precondition of collective action (Hartman & Way, 1988). Quality of democracy and quality of governance are another effective factor on conflict. As for democracy, all of its indicators have reverse and significant relationships with indicators of conflict. In other words, the more democracy is institutionalized and political rights and civil liberties improve, more reduction comes in the degree of conflict. While there is a direct relationship between inequality and social conflict, the political-economic development is also inversely related to the conflict index (Shekarchy, 1389: 176). In addition, the quality of governance has an influence on conflicts. Accountability, rule of law, control of corruption, government effectiveness, political stability, quality and regulation of affairs are the main dimensions of governance (Ibid, 135). As for the relationship between economic development and political conflict, while previous theories have emphasized that economic development, as measured by an increase in average incomes, reduces political violence, Muller challenged this notion and maintained that economic development leads to political violence (Weede, 1986). This study is based on case-oriented comparative approach. Macro variables and macro units are considered. The main purpose is to understand what variable in combination with what variables and in what circumstances lead to political violent conflict. On the other hand, causal relationships are established upon set relationships, not covariation between variables. Using a fuzzy approach, attaining necessary and sufficient conditions for occurrence of the result, and the recognition of structure of causal mechanisms through causal combinations of pathways are other features of this research. In the present study, degree of membership in the set of result (violent political conflict) and set of causal conditions were determined with reference to technical resources, the international indexes and world ranking. Violent political conflict as result and wealth inequality, nominal inequality, quality of governance, democracy and economy based on energy exports and economic development were defined as sets of causal conditions. After determining the threshold of full membership, cut-point and not full membership for causal conditions and result, membership functions, the calibration terms for result variable, causal conditions and finally fuzzy scores were generated by the Fuzzy Software.Countries selected as cases share some similarities and differences. With the exception of some countries such as South Korea, most of the countries have social and cultural diversity, and this provides their similarities. On the other hand, the geographical location (Middle East, Europe, North America, Latin America and Africa), political system (democratic government, semi-democratic and authoritarian) and economic policies indicate their differences. It should be noted that Turkey and Egypt were selected as positive cases because they met the highest level of political violence as it is included in the set result. The US, Canada, Sweden and Denmark were selected as negative cases because these countries do not share the same amount of political conflict as is the case in the positive countries above. However, there is the possibility of occurrence of result among them. Also, for diversification of cases and dispersion of the fuzzy scores a diverse range of countries such as South Korea, Malaysia, South Africa, Brazil and India were included in the study. The index of violent political conflict is defined by estimating the degree of political violence among countries which their score ranged between -2.5 and +2.5. Wealth inequality is measured by Gina coefficient index and nominal inequality is defined by the degree of political and economic discrimination among different ethnic, religious and race groups that inhabit in the each country. Political rights and civil liberties were used for measuring democracy and evaluation of the economic situation was based on the energy export as it is calculated by share of fuel resources export from total exports. GDP per capita was used to calculate the economic development. Composite index of government quality was defined based on criteria such as control of corruption, government efficiency, accountability, rule of law and the quality of settings, all of which ranged between -2.5 and +2.5. This study includes the period of 2009, with except of wealth inequality that is based on Muller's theory (who says the effect of inequality on violent conflict reveals itself in 5 years). Data for democracy was obtained from Polity institute, Index of quality of governance and violent political conflicts were obtained from WGI data set and nominal inequality index was obtained from Marupdate data set. Also index of wealth inequality and economic development were obtained from World Bank data sets.Discussion of Results and To sum up, the results of this paper indicate that wealth inequality is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for violent political conflict at the macro level. In other words, the presence of this variable does not influence the occurrence of violent political conflict. Also, in examination of multiple conjectural causation, this variable is not an influence on occurrence of violent political conflict and even its absence in combination with other variables, lead to occurrence of violent political conflict. Nominal inequality itself is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for occurrence of violent political conflict, but in two casual combinations, it leads to violent political conflict. Absence of democracy, economic underdevelopment and government quality individually are a necessary and a sufficient condition for incidence of violent political conflict, namely, the presence of each of these variables can lead to violent political conflict. The combination of the two conditions, economic underdevelopment and absence of democracy, in one the hand and inequality in wealth and absence of democracy on the other hand, are sufficient for the occurrence of violent political conflict. Finally, an economy based on energy exports is neither necessary nor sufficient for violent political conflict. Among the various multiple causal pathways, 4 causation-conjectural paths with regards to combination of theories were selected to improve the coverage ratio. Among above causal pathways, the third and the fourth pathways have relatively more coverage and the total coverage of the two pathways (0.736) is a higher coefficient. Also, the consistency coefficient of fourth path is less than the other paths. Nevertheless, all paths have a theoretical importance. Overall, in the countries studied it was observed that even the absence of wealth inequality, existence of undemocratic regimes and absence of economic development can lead to violent political conflict. Our Forth casual path shows that in countries where economy is not based on energy exports, violent political conflict is a result of existence of democracy and absence of economic development and presence and absence of democracy in various combinations can lead to violent political conflict.

In recent years, many researchers have tried to answer questions about changes in fertility. According to time and place conditions and abilities, they have presented research results to the scientific society. Despite these studies, however, no convincing answer can be given to the questions on how these rapid changes in fertility have taken place in recent years. Also, a relative understanding of each factor influencing fertility changes, specifically those influencing the space between marriage and having children needs more study. This research aims answering these questions so that hopefully a part of the void in this field will be filled. In most studies of in fertility the main variable has been the number of children present and attempts have been made to find the factors influencing the increase of number of children through examining family's different population, social, and financial factors; so in the present research we have tried to test several hypotheses through combining the current popular viewpoints in the field of giving birth to children and examining social, financial and population factors influencing dependent variables under study. Also according to statistical standards married women of 20-49 in Isfahan have been chosen as the population of study. Research framework is designed according to subject, sociological theories (modernism theory, economy and fertility theories, exchange theory, social gradation theory, post-materialistic values theory, particularized theology theory) and schools related to this field, and ultimately research hypotheses were extracted: there is a meaningful relationship between variables such as women's education, women's marriage age, the level of traditionalism, woman's religious tendencies, man's religious tendencies, family's income, family's social class (high or low classes), woman's power in the family and delay in having children. Also, this delay in having children seem to differ among working and not working women. The present research is a survey which used a questionnaires in 1390 to study Isfahani women. To be more specific, the research population consisted of all married women of 20-49 from all social ranks and levels in the city of Isfahan, whose number, according to Isfahan municipality's website is 413739 in the year 1390. Cochran sampling method was used to calculate sample's size. Three categories out of 14 districts were chosen through multi-level cluster sampling as rich districts (5), average districts (3) and poor districts (7). Then in each category the size of sample was divided by the number of districts chosen, and the number of questionnaires to be administered was extracted. With a sample size of 384, the number of questionnaires to be in each district was estimated. Overall, 430 questionnaires were administered, and 405 were flawlessly returned. Also in each district three blocks were chosen randomly and we went to all houses in person until all questionnaires were completed. In each house from married women of 20-49 one was chosen randomly and the questionnaire was answered by her. Indexes used in previous research were used to design the questionnaire. To reach acceptable validity, expert sociologists saw the questionnaire for content validity. To make sure of the research instrument’s reliability, Cronbach alpha coefficient was used. Cronbach alpha coefficient was above 0.7 which is acceptable.Discussion of Results and Age classification with the average of 26 years old shows that most responders lean towards middle age. When it comes to level of education, most responders had high-school diploma (38.7%). And about 0.7% were illiterate. 70.4% of responders were housekeepers and the rest were working in various jobs. The highest income of responders was above 2000000 Tomans and the lowest was zero, and family’s monthly costs were at most 1500000 Tomans and at least 100000 Tomans.Research results show that delay in having children is dependent on these variables: woman’s power in the family, education level, age, religious tendencies, family’s income and family’s social-financial status. Among these, age and woman’s power in the family had direct relationships with fertility and the woman’s-power-in-family variable is more in accordance with the three theories mentioned in research’s framework, specifically modernism theory, social gradation theory and post-materialistic values theory. Research’s analytic model consists of nine hypotheses from which two could pass the rejection test. Results from the present research are as follow:The hypothesis that speaks of negative and meaningful relationship between age and delay in having children is among the hypotheses that could pass the rejection test. The other was the hypothesis about the existence of meaningful relationship between woman’s power in the family and delay in having children.But other hypotheses could not pass the rejection test. Results show that despite research hypotheses there is no meaningful relationship between education, working, traditionalism, women’s religious tendencies, men’s religious tendencies, income and family’s economic-social status. In the present research to delicately examine the relationship between factors influencing the space between marriage and having children, not only did the effects of independent variables on delay in having children were examined and evaluated, but also multi-variable regression analyses of delay in having children with control variables’ presence were investigated. Regression results show that multiple correlation coefficient among dependent and independent variables is 2.50 and based on F and regression meaningfulness level their relationship is at a low-meaningful level. Coefficient of determination (R2) shows that 0.063 of delay in having children variance is explained by independent variables. So the most important finding of this research is that there is a negative and meaningful relationship between woman’s age at marriage and delay in having children with the rate of r=(-0.128), due to the meaningfulness level estimated the hypothesis is confirmed, meaning that when women’s age at marriage is higher, delay in having children is lower. We suggest the following recommendation: 1- Instruction and emphasis on marriage at the proper age for the youth2- Instruction and emphasis on having children at the proper age3- Instruction and proper education to create understanding in marital life4- Strengthening women’s different abilities to manage life in different aspects such as education, working, marital life, children up-growing, etc.6- Conducting more research to examine factors influencing the space between marriage and having children in Isfahan province and other crowded provinces of the country7- Conducting research on the effects of woman’s power in the family and its effects on delay in having children

In the recent literature on poverty and growth two main questions are receiving increasing attention: How much do the poor share in aggregate economic growth? And what factors explain differences (across space or over time) in the impacts of economic growth on poverty? In economic activities, with the growth of the agricultural sector, it is expected that extreme poverty will be reduced and income distribution will become more appropriate. Agricultural sector contains employment opportunities, both direct and indirect, which increase national output more than many others sectors. Research shows that the most successful economies are those that push the industry towards increasing exports. Studies show that the growth rate of the service sector (in terms of employment) is higher. Education, health and recreation services, have a positive impact on the quality of the organization. Professional services, including special skills for increasing competitiveness of firms provide special expertise for a business company which is competitive. One of the other policies that come to fight poverty is increasing human capital through training people. Increasing levels of education lead to increasing individual employment. This means that the main level of a nation's life is the ability to use skills, awareness about issues related to health and education. Income inequality is another important factor affecting poverty which is in a close relationship with it. In fact, as income inequality increases, the gap between the poor and the rich becomes wider. Since the growth of agriculture, industry and service sectors and the impact of variables such as education, health and social assistance on them are important, the question is what relationships might exist between these variables and poverty and welfare? Previous research has shown that growth in average income is correlated with reduction in the occurrence and depth of poverty. Looking at 67 countries, Ravallion and Chen (1997) find that inequality changes were uncorrelated with growth rates between 1981 and 1994, implying that poverty declines are strongly correlated with growth in mean incomes. They estimated that the elasticity of poverty incidence (at the “$1-a-day” line) to mean household income was about −3. Ravallion (2001) finds a lower elasticity of −2.1, when an econometric correction is made for measurement errors in surveys. Dollar and Kraay (2002) also found that “growth is good for the poor:” in a sample of 92 countries, over four decades, the mean incomes of the poorest 20% of the population grew on average at the same rate as overall mean incomes. For India, Ravallion and Datt (1996) found that growth in the agricultural and (especially) service sectors had a higher impact on poverty than manufacturing growth. Using state-level data over time for India, Ravallion and Datt (2002) found that the elasticity of poverty to non-agricultural growth varied significantly across states, and was greater in states with higher initial literacy and farm productivity, and lower landlessness and infant mortality. There is a relationship between poverty and social welfare, as it is shown in figure (1). We studied the poverty and welfare impacts of economic growth in provinces of Iran using information on poverty and social welfare, output by sector and a number of controls variables for a period spanning 8 years. We used value added information for sector growth data bases and household information for calculating the social welfare index and poverty index.We applied sectorial variation in these data to shed light on the determinants of poverty dynamics in Iran. Since we have a panel of 28 provinces in 8 years, we allow the regression coefficients to vary by provinces. The estimation method is GMM. In this method we use instruments and lags for variables. To motivate our specification choice, consider first the following model in levels:Discussion of Result & Iran's disappointingly low rate of poverty reduction and high welfare between the 2000 and 2007 was not due only to weak economic growth — though this was certainly key. It also reflected a low growth elasticity of poverty reduction, consistent with the country's high level of inequality. In this paper, we investigated three possible sets of factors that determine the distributional component of poverty reduction and more social welfare. We did find marked differences in the poverty-reducing effect of growth across different sectors, with growth in the service sector being consistently more pro-poor than either in agriculture or industry sectors.

Today organizations have to face increases in speed, intensity and depth of internal and external conditions. Copying with organizational goals, employee views, manager's attitudes, strategies and activities is an important key which impacts development of societies. Human resources are the main bases upon which nations can increase their wealth, realize their capitals, promote social, political and economic organizations, and support national development. Therefore, a country which cannot develop its citizen's skills and knowledge and use them effectively in national economy, cannot make progress in any other context (Harbinson,1973:3). Todaro believes what ultimately determines characteristics and trend of social and economic development of a country is its human resources rather material and capital wealth. So, the difference of developmental power of countries is laid in their differences in the quality of labor forces. This article studies the effect of organizational factors on level of work ethic based on a micro perspective. Work ethic is a part of society’s culture which entails values and norms related to work which can be studied or measured. It is a set of characteristics and behaviors which members of a society show in observing qualitative and quantitative conditions of committed work. These behaviors result from a notion based on workers’ attitudes and are in a relation with society's goals in general. With regard to important effects of work ethic on fulfillment of goals, strategy provision, individual behaviors, function of organization, job satisfaction, innovation and creativity, quality of decision making and so on, we can say that there is no other variable more important than the effect and role of this conception in the organization. Studies show that weak work ethic and low levels of useful work in Iran is a problem. For example, of the standard 8 hours work in Iran, only less than 1 hour is considered to be useful work. Whereas, this figure is 7 hours and 34 minutes for Japan (Moidfar,1378:34). Reports show that index of human labor productivity in Iran is low in comparison to our neighboring countries and Eastern Asia. In addition, problems such as lack of motivation, time waste, etc. are indicators of weakness of work ethic among Iranian employees. Today, work ethic is one of effecting factors in development and progress of industrial countries and studying it is sociologically relevant. The method of this study is survey and data was gathered by questionnaire. Before making final questionnaire, random interviews were made by some employees to select those variables which are more relevant and appropriate. The population of study was estimated to be nearly 1000 employees. Based on Cochran formula, 250 employees were selected by simple random sampling. Mostly, items of questionnaire were extracted from Gregory. C. Petty’s work (with elimination of some unsuitable items) which has shown a good reliability and validity in previous studies. Before distribution of questionnaire, some corrections were made based on expert's views. In this study, work ethic is consisted of four dimensions as: 1- Dependable 2- Ambitious 3- Considerate, and 4- Cooperative. The first dimension is measured by five characteristics: 1- Accuracy 2- Honesty 3- Effectiveness 4- Depression 5- Dependability. The second dimension is measured by four characteristics: 1- Loyalty 2- Autonomy 3-Innovation 4- Assiduity. The third dimension is evaluated by four characteristics: 1- Canniness 2- Being helper 3- Affability 4- Being thankful. And the fourth dimension is measured by: 1- Compatibility 2-Spirit of cooperation and participation 3- Following the rules 4- Following one's Superior. Organizational factors are independent variables which themselves are divide into two dimensions: 1- Style of management 2- Work environment conditions. The first dimension is measured by four characteristics: 1- Power distance 2- Supervisory 3- Reward system 4- Planning against unplanned. The second includes capability of Organization.Discussion of Results and The Results of the study show that there are relationships between organizational factors and level of work ethic and this relationships are positive and significant, but are weak. Among variables, meritocracy, style of management, environmental conditions of work have positive relationships with work ethic. Regression analysis of organizational factors and work ethic show that there is a linear relation between them. Adjusted r – squares change from. 27 to. 2 from model 1 to 3. Based on the third model, independent variables explain 27 percent of the variance of the dependent variable. According to standard regression coefficients, environmental conditions, meritocracy and style of management have the most impacts on dependent variable, respectively. The results show that relationships of all variables with work ethic are significant only when they are viewed with each other, but in regression model only environmental conditions, meritocracy and style of management had significant and linear relationships with work ethic. In the analysis of the relationship between meritocracy and work ethic, it could be said that when employees understand that without commitment and merit they cannot move to higher orders, they try to achieve merit with endeavor and education. Of course, this should be done in accordance with society’s dominant values. Inattention to merit, specialization and skill causes a weakness in spirit and domination of selfishness, Work environment conditions have also an important impact on job satisfaction. If suitable work environment conditions prevail in an organization, feelings of being valuable and likable are created among employees. In this respect, job security has more impact on work ethic by creating spiritual security at work environment. Unfortunately in our organizations, job satisfaction is weak. From one point of view, this is because historically the government has seen itself as competent for any action and can break its contracts with employees at any time. From another point of view, we are in a period which production and industry has increasingly progressed and so the way for brain and capital drain is open. So, absorbing human and material capital needs provision of suitable economic, social and political conditions. According to Weber and Herzberg, unsuitable work conditions lead to dysfunction. They have negative spiritual and physical impact on employees and decrease their efficacy. Therefore when starting their work, individuals put security and hygienic dimensions of work environment at propriety before anything else. So they prefer a safe, without risk, and clean environment. We believe that initiatives such as supervision and examination of work conditions, may increase motivation of individuals and decrease negative consequences such as laziness, absence and low efficacy of employees.

In recent years, increasing attention to the issue of organizational justice and its impacts on organizational outcome has urged organizations to strive for organizational justice in order to survive and reach their objectives. Perceiving injustice has a destructive impact on teamwork spirit and motivation of employees. Injustice and unfair distribution of organization's outputs and achievements demoralize employees and diminish their motivation to be active and assiduous. Besides, it probably reduces performance, production and commitment to the organization. In fact, justice does not mean to assign a single standard for all members. Rather, it means that we must enact responsibilities in certain conditions and act upon them in a fair way. Organizational justice determines how the employees must be treated so they feel they are being treated with justice. According to Lopaciuk (2011, p.63), while organizational justice have a positive effect on an organization's manpower in achieving objectives of employees and the organization, the employee's social capital is also instrumental in a way that chances of success in an organization with high levels of social capital is much more than those organization in which social capital is low. Social capital is a kind of latent wealth and property which is the result of mental preparedness of members of a society to give up their personal interests and engage in collaborative action. It could be considered as a manageable phenomenon in the sense that we can restructure it according to policies of the organization or help the process of its formation. Unlike other kinds of capital, social capital does not exist physically. Rather, it is the result of group and social norms and interactions whose increase causes the reduction of operational costs of the organization. Social capital is generative in nature and urges people to preserve values, perform tasks correctly, reach their goals and accomplish their life plans. In other words, no person or organization could succeed without social capital. Because it is related to perceived sense of injustice, this study attempts to discuss the establishment of justice in organization and employee's opinion on this issue as an effective factor regarding the amount of employee's social capital in the organization. The results, if proven, could help managers employ people with more social capital and hence achieve more success by establishing organizational justice. The present study is an applied and descriptive research attempting to offer a clear definition for the correlation of perceived organizational justice and the amount of personnel's social capital. This is a cross sectional field research. For testing empirical data, a conceptual model was designed by the authors. This model has two main parts, including organizational justice and social capital. In order to reach to research objectives, four hypotheses have been tested, investigating the relationship between perceived organizational justice and its dimensions (distributive, procedural and interactional justice) with the amount of employee's social capital. Research population is composed of the personnel of the health network in Noshahr city, of whom 136 individuals were sampled randomly. For data collection, a questionnaire was made by the researchers containing 31 questions based on Likert's five-degree scale. 15 of the questions include aspects of organizational justice and the other 16 questions are relate to aspects of social capital. The questionnaire has a high reliability (0.91) which was calculated by Cronbach's alpha. Also, the content validity of the questionnaire has been assured by using advice from experts. SPSS software was used for data analysis. The statistical methods used in this research include descriptive statistical methods (such as mean and single sample tables) and inferential statistics, including Pearson's correlation coefficient. Discussion of Results & Testing of the main hypotheses of the study shows, with 95% of precision, that there is a significant and positive correlation between perceived organizational justice and the amount of social capital in the sense that employees'' positive perception of organizational justice could increase their amount of social capital. Therefore, we can say that not only people with more social capital can better trust other members of their organization, but they can also trust members of other groups and organizations as well, participating in political cooperation, and becoming members of different groups and associations. They can also help to establish trust and uplift the organization's reputation, establish informal relationships in the organization, create empathy among the members and work in teams to perform their tasks. According to the results, striving to increase justice in organizations is one of the most significant factors which help organizations create an environment full of social capital and make great achievements as well as enjoying the benefits of organizational justice. They could also have a greater influence on the amount of employee's social capital by improving their positive perception of the administrator's just behavior (interactional justice). The researchers have reached a consensus that distributive justice leads to organizational effectiveness. By increasing the perception of procedural justice, employees obtain a positive view of the organization and its managers even if they are dissatisfied with payments, promotions and other personal benefits. In addition, procedural justice influences employee's confidence in organization and encourages them to remain in the organization. Various studies have shown that those organizations in which high levels of social capital exist have better organizational performance and hence are more successful in competition with their rivals. Therefore, social capital is the pivot of management issues and those managers who can produce more social capital are considered successful. Studies show that employee's opinion regarding degree of respecting justice in the organization influences attitudes such as organizational commitment and the legitimacy of people in authority. In addition, when employees feel that the organizational procedures and outcomes are unfair, they probably have a weaker performance. This behavior might also damage the process of social capital development in the organization. So all organizations in general and the health network in particular, must do their best to empower the process of justice in distributing outcomes, procedures and social interactions. We recommend that a cultural organization will be established to facilitate the development of employee's social capital and to include social capital indexes in the performance and reward assessment systems of organizations. Administrators can affect their employee's social capital through improvement of the relationship between their subordinates, partnerships, flexible and democratic structures, clear appraisals, fair treatments and empowerment of the employees. A careful study of these factors may reveals different types of justice in each of them.

There is clear evidence that because of irrational consumption, some parts of the world face problem of scarcity in natural resources. Natural resources of any society are its wealth that belongs not only to the present generation, but is a heritage that should be passed on to the future generations. The harmful outcomes resulting from shortage of natural resources has led, since the 70s, to several international conferences at the highest political level for optimal utilization of natural resources to achieve sustainable development. According to constitutional law of the Islamic Republic of Iran, preservation of the environment, both natural and human resources to achieve sustainable development, is considered as a national duty. Lack of natural resources such as fresh water is vital and quite evident. Of the total amount of water on earth, only 2.5 percent is fresh water, of which about two-third (68.9 percent) is trapped in glaciers and only a third of this amount is usable in such a diverse and uneven distribution. Based on current estimations, by 2050 at least 50 countries face shortage of fresh water, among which Iran is a country. Although the average rainfall in Iran is one-third of the global average, per capita consumption of water in all sectors, domestic, agricultural and industrial, is higher than the international standards. For example, per capita consumption of domestic water in Iran is 220 liters per day, while, this standard for world is only 75 liters. This shows that the amount of water consumption is a social problem in Iran. While in response to energy crisis many management strategies have been proposed, the fundamental solution in water crisis is saving. We try to review saving in water consumption in terms of various theoretical approaches, and consider the relationship between responsibility and tendency towards water consumption in particular. This research is a survey study. The statistical population is all citizens of Yasouj who are 18 years old and older. Sample size is 400 individuals who were selected by means of random multi-stage sampling method. The measurement tool is a researcher-made questionnaire measuring attitude towards saving water and responsibility. Attitude towards saving water was itself divided into three dimensions of cognitive, emotional and behavioral, and responsibility was also defined in terms of two aspects of individual and collective responsibility. Validity of the scales was measured by factor analysis technique, and reliability was calculated by cronbach's alpha coefficient. Based on the results, KMO test is 0.859 for attitude towards saving water, and 0.813 for responsibility, which show that the sample size is adequate. Moreover, Bartlett test is significant for both scales, suggesting that there is a significant correlation between variables. In total, the factor analysis of attitude towards saving water extracted three factors (after elimination of 9 items), and also factor analysis of responsibility extracted two factors (after deleting 3 items). The results show that the explained variance in the tendency toward saving water is 51.2 % and in responsibility 56.6 percent. The reliability of the scales has been calculated using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, the value of which was 0.77 for attitude towards saving water, and 0.80 for responsibility.Discussion of Results & On the basis of the scales results, the mean for attitude towards saving water is 50.4 within a range of 12-60 and the mean for responsibility is 39.5 within a range of 9-45. For the purpose of studying the relationship between responsibility and attitude towards saving, and their dimensions, simple linear regression test has been used. The results are presented in Table 1. As it can be seen, the relationship between responsibility and attitude towards saving is significant. Also, the table shows the relationship between each of the two dimensions of responsibility with each of the three dimensions of attitude toward saving is significant.Also, the results of the study show that there is no significant relationship between demographic variables (age, gender, marital status, education, income and ethic) and attitude towards saving water The mean for attitude towards saving is high. Therefore, based on the Ajzen and Fishbein' views (1975) regarding the relationship between attitude and behavior, we can be hopeful that attitude towards saving water will increase in cognitive, emotional and behavioral dimensions. Analytical results show that responsibility has a significant and positive effect on attitude towards saving. It is compatible with theoretical and empirical research. There is no significant relationship between age and attitude towards saving in water consumption.Overall, this study showed that the demographic variables do not have a significant relationship with the dependent variable.The fact that our society has a relatively dry climate and water consumption is high, it is necessary to save water, as water shortage crisis will be a fundamental threat in the future. Responsibility, a set of social skills that are learned during the learning process and lead to positive human relations, increase cooperation, success and satisfaction. It seems that, as this study showed, raising sense of responsibility among citizens is necessary in protecting water resources.

People live in groups and by cooperating with each other they obtain various benefits. Because life condition is dangerous and unpredictable, cooperation and partnership for survival is very valuable (Haynde, 2001). Indeed, the material and spiritual life of each society is dependent on the existence of people who have internalized moral values and try to serve others by prosocial behaviors. Stable people who are less affected by situations and conditions, may behave more according to their own moral values and standards, enjoying a high level of shared responsibility (Schuvartz, 1976). Shared responsibility is a valuable, protective and helpful behavior for people or groups which is based on commitment (Tome, 1999, Schuvartz, 1994) and includes different moral and actual aspects and considers the outcomes of every single act. Human beings react responsibly when they act according to moral perspectives and accepts that are responsible for outcomes of their actions (Avhagen, 2001). We define prosocial behavior in terms of four clear aspects including putting ourselves in other's place conceptionally, socially and emotionally. Beside these three points, moral reasoning is added as a conceptual scale in this study. Paying attention to others, social responsibility and piety can be summarized as paying attention to other's issues more than one's issues. Previous studies show that people who help others have high internal control standards and value moral commitments more than others (Emler, 1974). Altruism, as a type of prosocial behavior stems from, like responsibility, internal standards and sympathy. During the course of history a great number of people have defended their countries and made great sacrifices for defending their homelands, but history does not remember any period like the 8-year war between Iran and Iraq in which Iranian soldiers defended borders of their country and its religious authority in such a courageous way that is unprecedented, without any kind of compromise (Salmani 2008). It was a defense which has essentially shown high levels of moral reasoning and prosocial behaviors not just in words but in practice. The purpose of this research is to study the amount of prosocial behaviors and levels of moral reasoning among two groups of veterans and released war prisoners of this holy defense war. Methods and Materials: This research is a retrospective research (causal comparison- after event). Statistical population of this research includes all veterans and released war prisoners of the 8-year holy defense and citizens who were older than 20 years old in Isfahan city in the 1388. By using random sampling method 80 citizens of Isfahan were chosen. Of this number, 40 were veterans (20 ex-soldiers and 20 released war prisoners), and 40 were ordinary citizens older than 20 years old. In this research, veterans are individuals who participated in Iran-Iraq war who, according to the Institute of Martyr and Veterans, have been injured physically-psychologically or have been captured and are now recognized as released prisoner. The number of statistical sample was calculated by moral judgment test of Kohlberg and prosocial behavior questionnaire. The method of performing test contains stories that were read by researchers for participants and they were asked to answer questions in written format by yes or no and then provide their reason for the answers they gave. It was emphasized that the reason they give is very important for measurement. After going through this section, participants answered questions related to prosocial behaviors. The results were collected and analyzed statistically to see if research hypotheses are significant. Overall, this research includes 7 main hypotheses as follow: 1)The level of moral reasoning is significantly correlated with the level of prosocial behaviors. 2)The level of moral reasoning of veterans is different from that of other citizens of Isfahan. 3)The amount of prosocial behavior of veterans is different from that of other citizens of Isfahan. 4)The level of moral reasoning of released war prisoners is different from that of other citizens of Isfahan. 5)The amount of prosocial behavior of released war prisoners is different from that of other citizens of Isfahan. 6)The level of moral reasoning of released war prisoners is different from that of the veterans. 7)The amount of prosocial behavior of released war prisoners is different from that of the veterans. Table 1 show s correlation tests between prosocial behavior and moral reasoning.Discussion of Results and The first hypothesis of research is approved. There is a significant correlation between the levels of moral reasoning and the amount of prosocial behaviors in the sense that by increasing levels of moral reasoning, the amount of prosocial behaviors also increases. According to Kohlberg theory, the higher the level of moral reasoning, the more attention to other's rights. People who do get involved in moral reasoning in higher levels, respect other's interests more than their own interests. It is also the same when it comes to prosocial behavior. Altruistic people behave in such a way that satisfy other's interests even if their own interests remain unsatisfied and even if they get heart as a result of performing prosocial behavior.The results of testing hypotheses 2 to 5 indicate that there are significant relationships between levels of moral reasoning and prosocial behaviors. In fact, war veterans and released war prisoners tend to show more prosocial behavior and higher levels of moral reasoning in comparison to ordinary citizens. Likewise, there is a positive relationship between increasing or decreasing levels of moral reasoning and the amount of altruistic behaviors. This is the same thing that Kohlberg addressed in his theory of socially desirable moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg's theory, growth of knowledge leads to preference for moral reasoning, but Hoffman said that it is sympathy that may lead to moral reasoning.The results of testing hypotheses 6 and 7 show that there is no significance difference between the two groups of veterans and released prisoners. Altruism can be effective in increasing levels of moral reasoning and prosocial behavior, but it was not an effective factor in classification of veterans of the holy defense in this research.

The purpose of the present research is to investigate and identify the effect of demographic, economic, social, and cultural factors in describing family violence. In other words, in this research an attempt is made to answer the question "Why is violent behavior seen in some families? " Therefore, the research hypotheses have been based on three theoretical perspectives of social psychology; i.e., the psychoanalytic approach, the behavioristic approach, and cognitive approach as well as the previous studies in order to describe family violence. The data needed for testing the hypotheses were collected through a questionnaire and probability proportionate to size sampling (PPS) from a sample of 384 persons in Tabriz. The exploratory factor analysis was used to categorize the factors related to family violence, and cronbach's alpha was used to measure the reliability of the items. In order to test the hypotheses, pearson's correlation coefficient, t-test, and one-way variance analysis were used. Finally, to show the social factors affecting family violence, multiple regerssion was used. The results obtained from the research indicate that family violence has a significant relation with the family type, marriage type, socio-economic status, job status, level of education, age, and religious beliefs. Matherial & In the present research which is of correlation one with quantitative method, the Survey method has Utilized in order to determine family violence rate and collection of necessary data to test hypothesizes that is cross-sectional and blind as well as to the domain, Small and of operational type. Statistical society and sampling The statistical society of the present research, is persons above 15 years old resident in Tabriz that based on latest statihstic of Iran statistical center were 733.208 persons in midyear 1384. The Sample selection method based on mass i.e pps was Used to Sampling which is multistep cluster sompling as called sampling with probability according mass. (Beby, 1384: 460). Sample mass determination: The Cocran formula with estimation accuracy d=0.05 and variance maximum has Used to Calclate Sample mass and about 384 persons was selected as sample. (Rafie poor, 1377, 383) Data collection In the present research, the documental studies (taking card) has used to review resume problem nature and related descriptions as well as the necessary data has collector on utilized theory frames and hypothesizes test by questionnaire. Discussion of Result & Conclution: The main aim was demonstration of family violence and review of effective social factors role on it. Thus, in the findings of the present research which was conducted as survey was determind that the violenve rate among foregoing persons oquals to 27.74 with standard deviation of 20.90 that was obtained of data which were minimum zero to maximum 96.06 from 100. While such violence rate is so lower than moderate on, it could be said that, violence is in optimum level within Tabriz families. Also, the resultant findings indicate that, the highest violence within Tabriz families was related to economical violence at 34.04 with standard deviation 27.41 (from minimum zero to maximum 100) and it’s lowest related to regional Violence at 15.53 with standard deviation (from minimum zero to maximum 100). Now, we indicate theses two cases (i.e. economical violence and regional Violence) It seems in hieh economical violence rate, one of it’s main factors is social economy conditions and wealthy distribution system, which on the one side caused to revenue limitation most of peoples and on the other side led to inflation and costliness dong with noble values and wastage spirt as well as prodigality of rich which within low and middle classes of sacity conduce to feelings of false demands. The double economical pressure created persons and led to tension and conflict between family members. Also, Lowering of regional violence would be significant white regard to regional beliefs and ideas of studied persons. Though middle score of regional belifs shows that they have higher religional beliefs than moderate one. In result, could be said that because of these persons beliefs in the studied families, the regional violence is low.