فصلنامه جامعه شناسی کاربردی
سال بیست و چهارم شماره 3 (پیاپی 51، پاییز 1392)

The role of religion and its influence on different aspects of social life has always been under the attention of sociologists of religion but gender differences, its reasons and factors, have often been overlooked. Even research on this subject sometimes leads to inconsistent results. Generally, such research shows that women outdo men in prayers, religious activities and religious beliefs. There are so many different opinions about the reasons of such differences. Some attribute it to position structure, some to gender orientations and gender socialization, some to personal differences and some to the theory of risk aversion. Therefore, given the importance of the subject, little available research about it, and different, sometimes contradictory findings, it is essential to study the role of gender in religiosity, addressing questions such as: are women and men equally religious in our society? Are there any differences between women and men in terms of religiosity? Does research on different religions confirm these findings? Can power structure in family explains women’s greater religiosity? The present study attempts to answer these questions. Despite different research that shows women outdo men in prayers, religious activities and religious beliefs, Lowenthal believes that these differences depend on the culture and tradition of each religion. He states that any religion differentiates between religious obligations of men and women. Islam and Judaism, for example, place less strenuous duties upon women than upon men. In Judaism, women are not required to pray with a congregation and in Islam women should not enter mosques during their menstruation. Therefore, women are expected to pay less attention to the place of worship and to take part in some religious activities less often than men. In Christianity and Hinduism, in contrast, women are more religiously active than men. Hindu women are more willing to go to temples and probably Muslim and Jewish men do more religious activity than women and this is in contrast to Christians and Hindus. Loewenthal suggests that such differences lead us to expect different gender effects between Christians, Muslims and Jews. He concludes that although women are more religious than men, they do less religious activities than men do. In Christianity, women are more religious than men. In Hinduism, Islam and Judaism, men are more religious than women. Lowenthal attributes such differences to traditions and cultural norms of religions, whereby he negates this general principle that women are more religious than men (Loewenthal, 2001). To justify reasons of such differences, Miller and Stark believe that such gender differences have a physiological origin, resulting from risk priority. They suggest that men show more risky behaviors because of their risk priority and women are more religious due to their physiological nature of risk aversion. Extending the control-power theory of Hagan and colleagues and accepting risk-priority theory of Miller and Stark, Collet believes that these differences have a social origin, whereby gender differences in religiosity is linked to power structure of family and is thus explained. He states that boys in patriarchal families are encouraged to show more risky behaviors and girls are restricted to do so. Such gender differences seem to be lesser in egalitarian families. According to this theory, patriarchal or egalitarian families, by showing different behaviors, cause different gender socializations in children, which continue until adulthood. Since girls in patriarchal families are controlled more than girls in egalitarian families, they show risk aversion more and therefore are more religious. In view of the theoretical approaches of this research, which are based on the opinions of Loewenthal and Collet, we examine the following assumptions: women are more religious than men; religiosity is not equal in different religions; women living in patriarchal families adhere to religious values and are more religious. The present study is a national survey research which has been carried out by means of questionnaire and multistage cluster sampling. The research data are based on the findings of the project for studying global values. Statistical population of the research consists of all people above the age of 16 in Iran, who were chosen by using Cochran Formula with a sample volume of 2275. Variables of religiosity, father's influence and patriarchy were conceptualized and operationalized and then used in testing research's assumptions by such measures as Cramer’s V and phi. Discussion of Results & According to findings of the research, women are significantly more religious than men in all components of religiosity, including; religious values, religious beliefs, personal religious duties, religious consequences, thinking about meaning of life, prayer to God in addition to religious practices and belief in peacefulness of religion. In Iran, there are gender differences in religiosity and it can be said that women are more religious than men. Therefore, the first assumption (women are more religious than men) is confirmed. The only exception is that men take part in religious rituals more than women, but not in a significant level. This also verifies Loewenthal’s assertion that women do less religious activity than men do. Also, gender differences are not equal among Iranian Shias, Sunnis and Christians. The differences among Sunnis are more than among Shias, being in favor of women in both sects. But there is no gender difference among Christians. Therefore, the second assumption which, based on Loewenthal’s theory, asserts that gender differences in religiosity is culture-specific and vary among Christians, Muslims and Jews, is accepted.Loewenthal asserts that women take part in religious activities less than men. This is confirmed with regard to Shias and Sunnis, but not with regard to Christians. He also asserts that Muslim women are less religious than Muslim men, which is not acceptable according to the findings of this research.As mentioned before, Collet link gender differences to the power structure of family, asserting that girls who have been raised in patriarchal families have higher risk aversion and therefore are more religious. According to the findings of this research, however, these assumptions are not statistically acceptable. Therefore, the assertion that religiousness of women depends on the type of family (patriarchal or egalitarian) is rejected. The third assumption which, based on Collet theory, asserts that women in patriarchal families are more religious is rejected. These findings are highly important in view of sociological theory, because in the contemporary world in which power structure in most societies, including Iran, proceeds towards egalitarianism (Inglehart, 1993), (Azadarmaki, 2010), the rejection of this relation may denote the emergence of new structures in families and the possibility to preserve religious inclinations at the same time. The fact is that that acceptance of egalitarianism by families does not necessarily mean a reduction in religiosity. Considering gender studies which often emphasize discrimination against women due to social backgrounds and their inequality with men in some social aspects, studies such as the present one, which shows that gender differences are in favor of women, can have a positive effect on women. Their awareness about such abilities can help them play a more efficient role in their family and in their society, whereby improving their living standards and develop a better generation. In view of the importance of the subject, it is recommended that quantitative and qualitative studies to be conducted on gender differences in religiosity, its reasons and its contributing factors.

Gender inequality stems from social factors in each society. In theories of gender inequality, it has been assumed that family role in reproduction of gender inequality is of crucial importance (Bourdieu 2001, Chaftez 1999, dyson 2001). Demographic transition is one of the factors in the structure of family changes in recent century. Demographic transition is applied to changes from high levels of mortality and fertility to low levels (Lucas & meyer 2002). Demographic transition has some stages. In each stage, the population has special structure according to demographic characteristics such as decreasing family size, decreasing kinship relations, increasing women education, the more participation of women in work force and their higher independence. The education and employment of women leads to changes in power structure and marriage patterns. So, the institution of family differs in various countries according to different stages of demographic transition. This article is about the role of demographic transition in change in attitude towards gender inequality. Research sample includes 50 countries that are listed in World Value Survey for the year 2005. The demographic data has been prepared from population bureau of United Nations and gender inequality data has been used from World Value Survey, using cluster analysis for examining the above countries in terms of demographic transition. Research theoretical model is tested according to structural equation modeling and Amos software. Discussion of Results & The results of the study show that attitudes towards gender inequality are different in countries according to different stages of demographic transition. In Some counties such as Mali, India, Iraq, and Zambia, which are in primary stages of the first demographic transition, there is less negative attitude towards gender inequality. But countries which are in the second stage of their demographic transition, such as Sweden, Finland, France, United State, England, Russia and France, there is more negative attitude towards gender inequality. Countries such as Turkey, Brazil, South Africa, and Indonesia, which recently moved from the first stage of demographic transition to the next, are somehow between the two mentioned groups.The coefficient correlation between demographic transition index and attitude towards gender inequality is 0.58. Also, R Square is 0.34. It means that 34 percent of variance of attitude towards gender inequality is explained by demographic transition. The above relationship is not witnessed for countries such as Iran, Malaysia and Egypt. For these countries have gone through different stages of demographic transition, and they have less negative attitude towards gender inequality. Therefore, it can be said that changes of family structure by demographic transition differ according to social and cultural structure.In the present study, the demographic transition index is supposed to be an objective structure, leading to changes in gender inequality. These changes can be studied at two levels. At family level, family structure basically changes in the process of demographic transition. And these changes affect, in one way or another, child and gender sociability. At society level, demographic transition provides an opportunity for women to make themselves powerful and to try to earn different capitals, whereby decreasing the gender inequality gap. In conclusion, it can be said that the role of demographic variables should be considered in explaining changes of attitudes towards gender inequality.

Sociology of Teaching sociology is seen as a fresh new place to explore the importance and role of critical thinking in the sociology of education has been one of the most important issues to consider.Principles of Sociology course ample opportunities for students to develop critical thinking skills and attitudes and serves as a missionary spirit, critical thinking has suggested an alternative,Areas has brought the development of critical thinking. Learn the basics of critical thinking as a product of sociology curriculum content.To promote critical thinking skills so that potential learners. Increased emphasis on critical thinking in the university, leads to an increase in the use of critical thinking in the Society. Thinking and critical thinking as well as to social criticism, sociological thinking, and thinking is deemed necessary. Critical thinking involves the ability to judge and evaluate any logical thinking person based on sociological insights Mills provides.Sociologists should be in their classrooms, roads and planning ways to Students in order to enable them to think critically And the ability to create a bridge between personal experience and social events have. Critical thinking is one of the most important concepts that are essential for every individual and also play an important role in social life.Sociological critical thinking skills as one of the fundamental goals of education are considered in the evaluation. One of the most common objectives in the field of sociology of education is to enhance student's critical thinking abilities.Sociological critical thinking as well as product of Skills and sociological knowledge of Individuals.His ability to use that knowledge to properly deal with various topics of social life was sociologically.They show sensitivity to the needs of thereby making it one of the fields of social and cultural awareness is about. Critical thinking in education is a priority. Sociology course many opportunities for growth trends and provides the critical thinking skills.One of the major challenges in teaching sociology in Iran, according to critical thinking is a poor practice.Sociology of expectations and the necessary training in Iran, increased emphasis on critical thinking among students in general and specifically the female students. Women are half of the social construction of Iran, the main aim of the present study investigated the relationship between the sociology of education and critical thinking among students (the students associate degrees and Bachelor of Tourism Management, University of Isfahan Sheikh Bahai) will be. Matherial & Survey methodology and questionnaire data collection tools and approaches to teaching critical thinking Riketts (2003) respectively.Collection Data Based on total between girl's students (n=67) in introduction sociology class of Schiegh Baheei (Baharestan, Isfahan) (Tourism Management,one term, 1390-91).Discussion of Results & Conclutions: The attitude of students to learn the basics of sociology at the high level and high level of critical thinking in students expressed is. ranked in order of importance are the six components of the ability to understand the lesson, a valuable lesson, the importance of having a sense of enjoyment, motivation, learning and teaching principles of fear and concern of sociology. Drngrsh significant difference between the course Principles of sociology two educational levels (undergraduate interest) there.Meaningful relationship between the three components of good feeling, motivation, and also learn important lessons that have students think critically and independently represents the relationship between sociology and education is critical thinking among students.C. Wright Mills, leaning on approach, each student through the process of critical thinking in the sociology of education increases,Identification and analysis of practical realization of the society will be realized by most students.

Selection of reference group and inclination to it is among those important issues that thinkers consider it under various titles. By referring to criteria of a special group, we always assess our deeds, appearance, values, wishes, lifestyles and ourselves. In a case study, this paper intends to focus on women at the age of 16-29 who live in Ilam city to study their reference group. Identifying reference groups and the effective factors in women’s selection were the main purpose of this paper. So we tried to find the answer of such questions as "what are the reference groups for young women in Ilam?" "What are their characteristic attributes?" "Is there any conflict in the trends of reference group selection?" "What are the effective structural factors in this selection?" "Merton’s reference group theory was selected as theoretical approach because not only is it more comprehensive than Meads, Cooleys, and Simmer's theories, but it is also able to cover the main questions of this research. The main points of this theory include: relative deprivation, reference group, membership and non-membership, multiple reference groups, negative reference groups, effective structural factors in this selection, the consequences of this reference group selection, conflicts in inclination to reference group A qualitative approach with in-depth interview and observation technics were used as research methodology. Also, purposive sampling and standards of saturation were applied to quit data collection and start analyzing it, respectivelyDiscussion of Results & The results show that Ilam society is a convergent and intergroup society in which women are more inclined to membership reference groups, especially to their families and less to non-membership reference groups. But dissatisfaction of women from closed environment of families, classes and society made it necessary that other concepts would describe this situation. These concepts include: Localism and the petti bourgeoisie class. One of the characteristic of this class is that it has a limited ownership and neither is identically similar to worker class nor to capitalist class. It is a socially conservative one and in most cases it attends to traditional issues (Ritzer1998). We can classify all three groups as the petti bourgeoisie class because there was no significant differences among samples in three classes (high, medium and low). The women of this class are dependent to their families and their men (husband or father). In the one hand, they wish to enjoy from wealth, education and social openness. On the other hand, they to strengthen their ties to their families and believe that they can achieve their wishes only by their families. The petti bourgeoisie class in Ilam gets their wishes by looking at upper classes so they try to behave like them, but in contrast to their inclination, there is a situation which we call contentment or localism. Despite of all ambitions and wishes, Ilami woman have an internal force which invites them to content and return to family circle. So because of localism and contentment, they prefer not to hurt their families for their own personal choices of cloth, social relationships, etc.

The development of every society and every country is up to the staff in the organizations. Nowadays, most of staff are accused of keeping cold shoulder to responsibilities. Companies producing chemical products, for example, dig their waste material on the environment. Others do not use recycled materials in order to decrease expenses. They may decrease the salaries in the least. Such companies have either positive or negative effects on the modern societies. This study is intended to investigate staff's responsibility and the affective factors in Kermanshah's Oil Company. These people can be logically affective when interconnecting with each other at high level. Studies show that those who can’t accept the internal process of organization well, they will not trust the organization (Walker, 2009: 50), and the individual responsibility will not be conveyed well (Pitts, 2010: 11), and people will not like their jobs (Mitus, 2006: 14), and will not follow their goals in the organization (Walker, 2009: 50). The negative results including disorder, leaving job, absence, and less functional as a whole, will lead to non-functional job in the organization. The socialized organization is an affective factor whose impact has been approved by experts. The socialized organization is a process by which a person learns values, orders, and behaviors that let him be a member of the organization in sharing issues (Pitts, 2010: 11). Experts have examined it from various aspects. Turner’s collective, social responsibility includes logical, friendly, and moral behavior in the job, market and society (Turner, 2004: 5). Memery et al. call it security and improvement in quality of life. (Memery et al, 2005: 399). Sherman et al. considers it as a moral behaviors for social organizations in a wider concept (Sherman et al, 1386: 39). Fredrick knows it as an application of sources for wider, social goals (Falck and Heblich, 2007: 247). Wentzel defines it as a respect for other’s rights, individual competition and moral development (Wentzel, 1991: 2). Mc Aulay knows it as an ability to respond to humans, including being content with responsibility, the group and self values (Mc Aulay, 1996: 225). Juscius and Snieska know it as a dialectical relationship between commerce and society and the roles to improve social relations (Juscius & Snieska, 2008: 35). Castka and Balzarova, consider it as moral responsibility for behaviors oriented towards improving people’s life and their families to improve society (Castka & Balzarova, 2007: 276). Ford also knows it as following social rules to provide people’s expectations (Ford, 1985: 325). Some scientists have also considered social responsibility as commercial sings (Klein & Dawar, 2004: 206), examination of stocks (Lichtenstin et al, 2004: 18), the recognition of customer based companies (Sen & Bhattacharya, 2001: 228), and the customer’s behaviors and their organizational views (Barone et al, 2000: 250). Having said all that, the general goal of this study is to examine the effect of socialized organ on staff’s social responsibility in Kermanshah Oil Company. This Study is descriptive. The means of gathering data is interview and questionnaire. The statistical society is all staff of Kermanshah Oil organization, whose number was 1294 in 1391. Regarding the fact that Kermanshah Oil Company includes three branches: oil products, oil refinement, and pipe lines, the staff were also different: 365 individuals belonged to oil products, 225 staff belonged to pipe lines, and 704 belonged to refinery. Lin table has been used for choosing cases for the sample. Overall, 400 individuals were randomly selected to represent the whole research population.Discussion of Results & The results show that socialized, instructional organization has a meaningful relationship with social responsibility, including its different dimensions as logical (r= 0.32), economic r= 0.23, moral (r = 0.22), and friendly (r= 0.23). The results also show that the socialized, convenient organization has a meaningful relationship with social responsibility in logical aspect r= 0.105, economic r= 0.064, moral r= 0.201, and friendly r= 0.184. The results show that the socialized, supporting organization has a meaningful relationship with social responsibility in logical r= 0.315, economic r= 0.064, moral r= 0.178, and friendly r= 0.278, aspects. The results also show that the socialized organization of future view has a meaningful relationship with social responsibility in logical r= 0.199, economic r= 0.150, moral r= 0.042, and friendly r= 0.094 aspects. These results are aligned with studies of Lovhoren (2009) Pites (2010), Mitus (2006) and others.In conclusion, we need to think and to move in order to plan and to provide for social principles of organizations in different aspects. Every organization should trust the goals, system of values, economic conditions, and socio-cultural values. On the other hand, every organization should consider that good function has positive effects on others. Social responsibility should be voluntary, it could be a program to overcome corruption in the society.

Generations are one of the most important forces of change in societies so that as long as new generations emerge, new values and norms emerge inevitably. Iran has experienced great socioeconomic and cultural changes during recent decades. Generations must not be viewed just as a challenge to solidarity of society. From a functional view, dynamics of generational succession may be considered as a mechanism through which society finds its balance between stability and change. Mannheim believes that without generations there would not be any changes in society. In the eye of Mannheim and Comte social changes emerge in the hand of new generations. It is in the modern era that the changing orientations of generations emerge more eminently. Relative to pre-modern era, in modern period social changes occur more rapidly, widely and intensively (Giddens, 1990). Furthermore in spite of pre-modern time - in which children marry as soon as they attain puberty-children experience a new period of adolescence which is defined by more social mobility, and mostly getting away of family. In a developing society like Iran in which modernizing forces have caused great socioeconomic changes; the youth are a big part of population so that it has one of the youngest age structures all over the world; in less than three decades has experienced immense events such as revolution and war, the study of generations’ values sounds to be necessary. In the present study we investigate the emotional orientation of two generations toward their parents. For this we follow four 1- Description of emotional orientation of individuals toward parents, 2- Investigation of the effect of value orientation of emotional orientation across two generations. 3- Investigation of the relationship of structural dimension of generational relations and emotional orientation of generations. 4- Investigation of the relationship of functional dimension of generational relations and emotional orientation of generations. 5- Examination of the influences of socio-economic variables on emotional orientation of generations toward parents. In this study we distinct two generations according to age variable. In macro level this division is in accordance with an important event –imposed war. The formative years (Schuman and Scott, 1984) of younger generation were influenced by war consequences while the older generation managed war and directly experienced it. The context of research is Sabzevar city. Sabzevar is the second most populated city in Khorasan Razavi province. A population of 149327 persons was taken as the target population. A sample of 398 individuals at the age of 18-65 was selected through multistage cluster sampling. The size of samples was determined based on Cochran’s formula. The instrument is a questionnaire. The questionnaires were administered by skilled researchers. Before administering the test, the reliability and validity of the instrument was established. An analysis of pre-test showed an Alpha Cronbach of more than 0.8 for the scale. Construct validity of instrument was established by factor analysis. The amount of KMO was 0.85 and the level of Bartlette test significance was 0.99. Furthermore the face validity of the scale was confirmed by sociologists and university professors.The questionnaire was administered under uniform conditions by experienced researchers in the field. SPSS was used to determine descriptive and inferential statistics. Dependent variable: According to Bengetson's theory emotional orientation is the amount of positive feelings of individuals toward their parents. Bengetson and Roberts determined some indices for this variable including the level of feeling affection, warmness, agreement, trust and respect. Discussion of Results and Descriptive findings and the sample features can better be specified in terms of the following figures and factors:1. Sex: 47 % are male and 53% are female2. Employment: 47.2% are employed and 46.5% are unemployed 3. Place of birth: 80.7% are born in cities and 15.6% are born in villages4. Average age: 35.55. Average years of education: 11.4Univariate hypothesis testing showed that independent variables including associational solidarity (r=0.24), value orientations (r=0.15), functional solidarity (r=0.36) and illness of family members (r=-0.15) are significantly correlated with emotional orientation of younger generation. Among older generation, associational solidarity (r=0.29) and functional solidarity (r=0.55) have significant relationship with emotional orientation. Results of t-test indicated that there is no significant difference between two generations in their emotional orientation scores.Multiple regression results for younger generation showed that two independent variables- value orientation and birth place- were used in the model in order and explained 23 per cent of the variance of dependent variable. This means that value orientations is the most important predicting variable for the emotional orientation of younger generation. As the value orientation is more conservative, the emotional orientation is warmer and vice versa. Furthermore, those who are born in rural area have emotionally closer relationship with their parents.Repeating this procedure for older generation indicated that just one independent variable that is functional solidarity were used in the model and explained 32 per cent of the variance of emotional orientation. These findings states that among older generation the more exchanges and reciprocities between children and parents, the stronger and warmer emotional orientation toward parents. The fact that value orientation is a predictive variable for emotional orientation among younger generation and is not for the older one may be interpreted as the sign of shifts and transformations in relationships between family generations. In transitional societies like Iran, firstly material dimension of the culture shifts and then non material aspects begin to transform that is noted as cultural lag in sociological literature. Various researches show that in Iran some orientations of younger generation including distrust, emphasizing on modern not ideal values etc have been shifted significantly compare to older generations.In present study we found out having more liberal values correlates negatively with emotional orientation toward parents among younger generation. It seems that studied society have been placed in a historical turning point in which the last domain of change is the emotional relationships in family. Although in this study there was no significant difference between two generations in their emotional orientation toward parents, however regarding the fact that value orientation is the strongest predictive variable of emotional orientation for the older generation, we expect that in the future we will observe significant difference of emotional orientation of next generations toward their parents.Finally we emphasize on a deep understanding of transitional societies conditions which normally must be equipped with a historical-sociological view. Like class position generational position has such a decisive impact on individual's conscience that they construe it natural as well as real. Most of the times previous cohorts construe new one's values, preference, tastes and orientations as abnormal and unnatural and new generations think the same way about older ones. These may be lead to conflict across increasingly changing conditions. Psychological advices of media to solve the problem cannot be a real solution since the nature of problem is sociological and needs a sociological conscience and solution.

The role of values of the masses in transition to democracy has become particularly salient in recent years. The conceptual genealogy indicates the emphasis of thinkers like Aristotle and Plato on the importance of the role of citizens’ values in policy, yet in recent decades the research on the ‘civic culture’ conducted by investigators such as Almond and Verba´s has increasingly directed attention to this phenomenon. The present study is carried out in the same way as those of the above, but has utilized more innovative ideas and experiences on the subject of values. Generally, political culture is based on the cultural and political ties and particularly, speaks about effects of culture, beliefs and values on policy in the society. Larry Diamond has reminded that "since democracy requires a set of political values and orientations of citizens such as balance, tolerance, civility, efficiency, knowledge and participation, political culture is considered as a major contributor in strengthening of democracy" (1999:161). Ronald Inglehart argues that, currently culture plays a more vital role over than the past two decades of literature of democracy. In his view, economic development leads to gradual changes in the culture; so that people increasingly demand democratic institutions and they are going to be more supportive for democracy (Inglehart 2000: 6-95). From the Paradigmatic perspective, among the political culture studies, three main approaches can be separated: Legitimacy approach (System-support approach), Communitarians approach (Social Capital approach) and the Human Development approach (Emancipative approach) (Inglehart and Welzel, 2009: 572).Some advocates of the legitimacy approach view democracy as a limited set of institutional mechanisms which regulate the official policy. In this approach, democracy does not require democrat citizens. It is sufficient to have a majority who trust these institutions in a satisfactory level and prefer democracy to other alternative systems of government. Two other approaches (Communitarians and Human Development approaches), follow the tradition of civic culture school. From their point of view, efficiency of democracy requires a wide range of citizenship values. Communitarians approach emphasizes the values which link citizens to daily life and strengthen their loyalty to the community (Bell, 1993: 82-85). They emphasize volunteer activities and interpersonal trust as the general context in which democracy can flourish. Thinkers of Human Development believe that one of the important aspects of the civic values is self-expression values. Ronald Inglehart and colleagues changing the formulation of the Modernization theory, insist on the importance of self-expression values on the reinforcing of democratic institutions (1389, 2002, 2004, 2005 and 2009).In the political realm, the growth of post-industrial value, leads to loss of respect for authority and growing emphasis on participation and self-expression. These trends are the beginning of democracy in authoritarian societies and an origin for elite-challenging in the relatively democratic societies. According to Inglehart and Welzel's theory, the type of political culture appropriate with effective or formal democracy, involves Human Development syndromes or self-expression values, or in other words "emancipative values"(Welzel and Inglehart, 2009: 132). In the decades of 60 and 70, youth and relations between generations as a social phenomenon attract attention of analysts and experts of social problems. Karl Mannheim was the first theorist who introduced the concept of generation. This concept was utilized to study the development of conservative thought in modern societies. In Mannheim view, the rapid changes in environment and technological alteration play an important role in intensifying the intellectual and cultural differences between generations (Lavar, 1373: 190). As Inglehart and his colleagues express, one of the most important trends of intergenerational substitution occurs in the domain of transition from traditional values to self- expression values or the more generally transition from materialistic values to post-materialistic values. They consider actions like "increasing in elite-challenging forms of civic action", "strive towards gender equality" and "tolerant attitude to another" is going to be much more common among the younger generation and be regarded as normal action. In Iran, concern for democracy dates back to the Constitutional Revolution, about one hundred years ago. After that, many historical opportunities for democratization have occurred and this trend has continued to the present time. On the other hand, since the social, political and cultural values and norms of the society survive through transmission from generation to generation, so it could be said that survival of any society depends on the flow of cultural transmission in that community. Indeed, the Culture and Civilization of any society survives via intergenerational interactions. Therefore, democratic values as all values and beliefs will be conveyed to next generations; however this movement might be a salutatory transmission. Accordingly, this study attempts to answer these questions: - Similarities and differences between the three generations (young, middle aged and old) in terms of democratic political culture at national level. - Similarities and differences between the three generations in terms of democratic political culture at sub-national level. Methods and Material: This Study is based on secondary analysis. The Structural equation modeling with Amos Graphics was utilized to test the reliability of the main model (democratic political culture or Self-Expression values model) and confirmation of the theoretical model. In preparing data for structural equation modeling and testing the main hypothesis, SPSS software was also used. The statistical population of this study include the whole country of Iran and the unit of analysis is its ethnics and provinces. The utilized data was obtained from World Values Survey (WVS), wave 2005, which had been accomplished in Iran with 2667 samples.In this study, the measurement model of the main construct of self-expression values was contained four latent variables, including post-materialism values, autonomy, gender equality and tolerance. Since, the final score for autonomy and post-materialism variables were calculated in the survey data set; they were utilized as observed variables in the research model. Also, reliability and credibility of gender equality, tolerance variables and entire model were evaluated, distinctively. Ultimately, factor loading for each of the variables in political culture model were specified by credit assessment with the structural equation modeling.All data of survey were entered in to the political culture model as they were integrated at the provincial and ethnical level and being standardized (standardized Z scores). Variables with low factor loading or unacceptable fitness were excluded from the measurement model in the final model. Discussion of Results & Younger generation (29-15) achieved a higher mean than the two previous generations in terms of democratic values. Except gender equality, men got better grades in all indices of self- expression values than women, but in their final grade women gained higher mean. In ethnical ranking, Kurds achieved much higher results than other ethnics. After Kurds, Fars, lur, Gilak and Turk tandem come. Finally, in provincial ranking, those with Kurdish Language include Kurdistan, Kermanshah, Western Azarbayjan was located at the top of the table and at the bottom, respectively, and these provinces came: Zanjan, Hormozgan, Sistan and Baluchestan, Ardabil and Hamedan. Moreover, no significant difference between the two generations of middle-aged and older were found among the studied ethnic groups; even though the general trend keeps its ascending order and average of each generation is more than prior generation. Importance of the distinctive life experiences in different generations has led to non-homogeneous effects and it can be seen in the results of this study, it can provide distinction between generations in terms of belief and behavior.

Since the beginning of the 21st century, sustainable development does not mean only considering the environmental and economic dimensions, but also social issues in achieving sustainable development has opened a new window in front of us. Social stability is an essential component of sustainable development that has received special attention from politicians and planners alike. Because social issues are inevitable in the process of urban planning and is an integral part of urban design, one can explore and identify the affective ways of social issues by determining the dimensions of social sustainability. In other words, the dimensions of social sustainability can be seen as one of the most important and key tools used in urban planning and policy. Moreover, the breadth, complexity and diversity of social sustainability indicators and their role in society in terms of these indicators and performance implications will be considered, each value is obviously different from the other. As one of the integral elements of the planning process, assessment has always been at the center of attention. After setting the overall objectives of the planning and seeking different alternatives, the assessment is conducted so that through the comparison of various options in terms of their competency, the optimum alternative is selected. Multi-criteria evaluation is one of these methods which allows for analyzing and presenting all available data about alternatives based on different and multidimensional criteria. These assessment methods might be quite quantitative (e.g. the method of objective achievement matrix), qualitative (e.g. System Analysis Methods) or a combination of both (e.g. environmental impact analysis methods) (Zebardast 2009: 19). This paper assumes non-uniform weights of the indicators of social stability and measures with the aim of identifying and assessing social sustainability indicators. To achieve this goal, the Analytic Network Process (ANP) and the Delphi method to determine the weight of each of the indicators of social sustainability has been used to explain. The research method in this investigation is descriptive – analytic due to its practical approach and aim. The method of data collecting was based on library research and documents and interviews with some experts.The concerning criteria, sub-criteria and factors in this study are mutually dependent and interconnected, since in problems demanding such mutual interconnections the use of analytic hierarchical process lead to a wrong result. Therefore, we use the analytic network process because through such analysis there would be no problem in output, even though there is no interconnection among criteria. So regarding the existence of interconnections between social sustainability criteria, we have used the ANP, resulting a more proper outcome.Discussion of Results & According to the evaluation criteria used for network analysis, we concluded that equal opportunities (EO =0.136), the security objective (OS = 0.129) and social interaction (SI =0.107), respectively, have the maximum weight as the most effective factors influencing social stability.By accepting the social sustainability as an inseparable part of achieving sustainable development, the social justice could be considered as the most important and effective index, leading to sustainable development. In fact, sustainable development requires social justice in order to make human resources more hopeful and optimist to the process of development. Therefore, social justice is the key concept to arrive at sustainable development.

Marketplaces and trade free zones are the objective places for economic interactions among people in a large scale. Along the organizational and non-organizational preparations, marketplace is one of pivotal contexts of achieving special aspects of economic action which has been established in order to arrange informal economic and cultural relations of borderers in both sides of the border. Iran’s earthly borders – both mainland and watery- is about 574.8 km, with a cultural and ethnic diversity. There are about 54 border markets in these borderline strips that are so important and need special attention and study. Border markets have an impact on negative consequences of smuggling and smugglers and backers, declining the extent of latent economy. These markets can be studied in several aspects. Accordingly, the function of a formal market (Bashmaq) and two interims (Dareweran & Piran),the smuggling phenomena in Marivan was constantly one of the most pivotal problems that has agonized and occupied responsible correlated organizations in different periods; and it has influenced life and environments of the region’s people in various ways. The original subject of this inquiry is the study of the effects of border markets on smuggling in Marivan city. Then it is reconstructed using qualitative method and also the perception & explanation of people who are settled in this region. Based on the present study, people of the region, as creative actors, can percept and clarify the role of marketplaces in smuggling changes in Marivan city. This paper is based on qualitative methodology and critical anthropological method. A critical anthropological research has a critical standpoint and tries to understand the unequal condition of society that brings a system of unjust power, privilege, advantage and authority along and influences people, classes, ethnics and genders; such a method is useful by informing people for challenging hostile conditions (Croswell, 1998:37; Iman, 2009: 316). The research findings are provided by the aid of deep interview, participation observation and documentary technics. The credibility, transferability, confidence and criterions are among those scientific indexes that are tried to be present throughout the whole research. The sampling mode of this research is based on paradigmatically supposition. In this mode of sampling, by following a process of gradual selection, the researcher, during compilation of data, will add new cases to the older samples according to current changes in the research scheme. These cases which have been selected at engendered occasions are momentous instances and key informants on the research subject. By this method, 27 key informants were interviewed to arrive at theoretical saturation. Key informants or newsy gatekeepers are native and involved people in smuggling in boundary region of Marivan. The Grounded theory method” was utilized for data analyzing. GTM is a special methodology based on explanatory – constructional foundations which was invented and expanded by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss in 1967. In this method, data is coded in three stages of coding (open, pivotal, and selective coding). During these three steps, sensitive concepts, significant and core categories will be revealed.Discussion of Results & As it is summed up in our model, it can be admitted that due to the perceptions and explanations of research participants, although markets result from restriction and reduction in the oldest modes of smuggling phenomenon, they have indirectly continued it in new and several modes because of various problems such as: intricate and dissuasive bureaucracy, vulnerability and inefficiency of interior surveillance system of markets, situational disorder and out-structural oppression. As it is demonstrated in the model, finally the findings emphasize the changed effects of smuggling phenomenon on its constitutive factors. In other words, informal actions of smuggling phenomenon that is now current in borders and boundary markets of Marivan, reinforce its formation and genesis contexts. So this makes it harder for markets to achieve one of their vital goals, that is, eliminating and deleting smuggling completely. In the end, various out–structural oppression such as: Organizational and ecological and livelihood makes it possible for smuggling phenomenon to be maintained in different changeable modes and this phenomenon subsequently reproduces its own former continuative conditions.

Social life is one of the natural features of humans. Traditional and modern features of gathering have been some evidences of this trend. The basic motivation for this social interaction is interdependence of community members for their spiritual and material needs (Shahbazi, 1996). Our basic values and religious beliefs are also in line with this view. Cooperation can help poor and disadvantaged people providing employments and sustainable livelihoods (Shabanali et al. 2009). Accordingly, in development of the 20-year plan of our country, it has been regarded that equal opportunities for work and employment should be provided for people. Thus, the role of cooperative sector as one of the most democratic sectors of economy is more important (Safari, et al. 2010). These days, during the fifth development plan, the responsibility for providing employment opportunities has been assigned to the cooperative sector. However, cooperation and team work has not been institutionalized in our country. Kohgilouyeh and Boyer-Ahmad province as a part of our country is also not an exception. In the other words, in spite of long traditions of cooperation and team work among people, efficient use of this moral rule has not been so significant. Thus, the main question that arises here is that “why despite of importance and positive functions of cooperation and team work, there is less willingness to do that?” Thus, the Theory of Planned Behavior was used in this study to identify factors which predict the acceptance of cooperative system in Boyer-Ahmad County. This may help planners and decision makers to strength facilitators and to remove barriers of tram work. Conceptually, the model presented in this paper stems from the theory of planned behavior (TPB) as originally proposed by Ajzen (1985). According to the theory of planned behavior, people act in accordance with their intentions and perceptions of control over the behavior, while intentions in turn are influenced by attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceptions of behavioral control. The cognitive foundations of these factors are consistent with an expectancy-value formulation (Ajzen, 1991). Attitudes are an individual’s positive or negative evaluation of performing the behavior. Subjective norms are an individual’s beliefs about what significant others think she/he should do. PBC reflects perceptions of the ease or difficulty to perform the behavior of interest (Ajzen, 1991). These constructs are formed by three different kinds of beliefs, namely consequence beliefs, normative beliefs and control beliefs.In this study, the purpose of the modeling was to explain probability of acceptance of cooperative system by respondents. This probability was explained by joint influence of attitudes toward cooperation, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control (PBC).Technically, structural equation modeling (SEM) has been used to test and to estimate causal relations specified in the theoretical model. This type of modeling technique allows for inclusion of latent variables in the models that are not directly measured. Thus, this model allows for incorporation of attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control as latent variables that are indicated by observed variables. In addition, diagnostic parameter such as Chi-square (χ2); Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA); Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI); the Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI); the Comparative-Fit-Index (CFI) and the Normed-Fit-Index (NFI) also considered as indicator of the model goodness-of-fit. Survey research method with a pre-structured questionnaire was used to collect data. The validity of the questionnaire was verified by experts and the reliability of research tool was also measured and verified through a pilot study in Sisakht county, Kohgiluye-BoyerAhmad province, using Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient (0.578- 0.944) which pass the widely accepted threshold value. These measures ensure that latent variables are internally consistent i.e. reliable and stable.Research sample was selected among Boyer-Ahmad county residents (n=486) based on Krejcie and Morgan sample size table (Patton, 2002) and stratified random sampling procedure.Research sample in each stratum (rural-urban) was selected in some stages based on Cluster Sampling rules. Thus, in fact research sampling technique of this study is Stratified Random Sampling and within each stratum, a Cluster Sampling approach has been used. The research tool (questionnaire) consisted of nine parts. One to eight parts of it were to measure different components of TPB i.e. cooperative acceptance behavior, behavioral intention, behavioral beliefs, normative beliefs, control beliefs, evaluation of results, impulse to obey, and the power of control beliefs. The ninth part of the questionnaire was about demographic variables such as age, sex, habitat, level of education, employment and so on. Discussion of results and The results of descriptive statistics showed that the mean score of the age of respondents is 31 years and most of them have been in the range of less than 30 years old. 46.3 percent of respondents were from urban areas while the rest of them (53.7 percent) were from rural areas. Also, most of them (about 45 percent) were in secondary and post-secondary education. Finally, about 31.9 percent of them were unemployed and the others were employed in different sectors i.e. governmental (23.9 percent), cooperative (8.4 percent) and private (35.8 percent). The results of descriptive statistics of respondents’ cooperative behavior showed that the mean score of this variable was 1.41 in the range from 1 to 5 which is located in the lower level. Also, the mean score of behavioral intention of the studied sample was 2.97. Moreover, respondents’ attitude towards cooperation and team work was calculated by multiplying behavioral beliefs score to evaluation of results score. Based on this calculation, the mean score of the respondents’ attitude towards cooperation and team work was 15.78 from 25 that is above average. Furthermore, subjective norm was calculated by multiplying normative beliefs to impulse to obey and perceived behavioral control was also calculated by multiplying control beliefs to the power of control beliefs which respectively mean 9.78 and 12.47. To study the relationships between variables, Pearson correlation coefficient was used. The results showed that there were statistically significant and positive relationships between the supposed variables. The Path Analysis was also used to investigate direct and indirect effects of independent variables on dependent variable(s). In the first stage, behavior as the dependent variable and behavioral intention and perceived behavioral control as independent variables were entered to regression analysis simultaneously. The results showed that the direct effects of these two independent variables on the supposed dependent variable were statistically significant and positive, and they were significant predictors of the cooperation acceptance (dependent) variable. The standardized regression coefficients showed that behavioral intention has more effect on cooperation acceptance in comparison to perceived behavioral control. In the second stage, behavioral intention regarded as dependent variable and attitude towards cooperation, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control regarded as independent variables and entered regression analysis simultaneously. The results of this stage showed that direct effects of independent variables on dependent variable are statistically significant. In the other words, those with favorable attitudes toward cooperation, those who have experienced stronger social pressure for cooperation acceptance, and those who feel a sense of control over internal resources (such as potentials and abilities), and over external resources (such as facilities and credits), and over successful perform of behavior, are more willing to accept cooperation system. The standardized regression coefficients showed that attitude towards cooperation has more effect on intention to accept cooperation in comparison to other variables, and then, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control have more effect respectively. However, adjusted R square showed that these independent variables able to explain about 29.3 percent of changes in dependent variable variance.The total standard causal effects of independent variables on cooperation acceptance behavior showed that behavioral intention have the most total effect on behavior and then, perceived behavioral control, attitude towards cooperation and subjective norms placed respectively. In the other words, attitude and subjective norm have only indirect influence on behavior (via behavioral intention).Moreover, the analysis of the goodness of fit showed a good fitness of the supposed model for the studied respondents. Thus, the following recommendations can be present based on research - Continued technical, equipment and financial support of cooperative sector- creating a culture of cooperation in the society via strategies such as publicity, education and extension programs and so on

Using Pierre Bourdieu’s theory about existence of various hierarchies in the academic field, this study attempts to investigate the development of cultural hierarchy in Iran’s academic field around cultural capital, assuming the existence of the social-economic hierarchy. To this end, the ternary dimensions of the cultural capital have been compared in the students of four academic disciplines including: Medicine, Law, Industrial design, and Sociology. Of course, this article specially focuses on the Sociology as the youngest social knowledge and its status within these hierarchies. This focus is due to the fact that, in recent decades, sociology has undergone a significant development, qualitatively and quantitatively, and has changed from a marginal science to one of the main subjects of the arguments. Moreover, another event which has occurred in the Iran academic field is the special tendency among students of other disciplines to enter the majors related to the discipline of social sciences, and particularly, sociology, for their higher education. In recent years most of the students in Master’s degree and PhD levels are from the graduates in such well-positioned disciplines of the social-economic hierarchy as Medicine and Engineering. In recent years, statistics suggest that more than half of the students who have passed the Master’s Degree examinations of sociology are from disciplines other than the social sciences. Accordingly, in the introduction section and the part related to the research problem, while the importance and position of the sociology in general and its merits have been explained, it’s been claimed that this academic discipline has the high capability to respond to most social problems. This study was done by conducting a survey and data were collected by means of a questionnaire. Research population includes all the students who were studying at Isfahan University in one of the four disciplines of Sociology, Industrial Design, Law and Medicine. A sample of 240 students was gathered using Cochran formula for the variance. Indexing of the variable of cultural capital was conducted in the empirical background of the study regarding the availability of Bourdieu’s questionnaire and the intended indices for the variable of cultural capital. These indices were validated in the preliminary questionnaire using face, criterion and construct validity techniques. The reliability of the research questions, also, proved to be at the acceptable level with the Cronbach’sα = 0.78. Finally, the following hypotheses were proposed based on the research problem and theoretical framework: 1. The students in the sociology and industrial design get a cultural capital score higher than the mean of the established theoretical standard. 2-The students in the Law and Medicine get a cultural capital score lower than the mean of the established theoretical standard. 3-The students in the sociology and the industrial design get a higher cultural capital score than the students in the Law and Medicine.Discussion of Results & The findings of the present study show that the stock of the accumulated cultural capital (the sum out of combining the ternary dimensions of the variable of cultural capital) amounts to 2.18 in sociology, 1.99 in Industrial design, 1.77 in Law, and 1.48 in Medicine. The students of the sociology have a head start on other groups owing to the high score in their objectified cultural capital. These results and the related validity tests indicate that the first hypothesis can be rejected, while the second and the third hypotheses can be accepted and the results can be generalized to the population. As the results show, the cultural capital in the disciplines which are located at the top of the cultural hierarchy is more than the cultural capital in the disciplines which represent the social hierarchy. Finally, based on the results obtained, it can be said that the difference between the mean score of the students’ cultural capital is one of the indicators of the appearance of the cultural hierarchy alongside the pre-existing social hierarchy in Iran academic field. For the sociology and art undergraduates and postgraduates, this stock of the cultural capital plays quite the same role in terms of the partial differential functioning as the role which social status of the Law and medicine plays for their agents. The results also show that this stock of cultural capital is not enough for institutionalized the cultural status. The institutionalized of the cultural status requires: a large stock of the capital in general, a large proportion of the cultural capital in the composition of the capital and transferring this stock and capital composition to the next generation with a rising positive slope in the process of capital path.