فصلنامه جامعه شناسی کاربردی
سال بیست و چهارم شماره 4 (پیاپی 52، زمستان 1392)

Drug abuse seems to be a major problem in all contemporary societies; it has destroyed millions of lives and fighting it has consumed a substantial percentage of national budgets around the world (UN Drug Report, 2011: 8).Iran has one of the most serious drug problems in the world and the latest Rapid Situation Assessment (RSA), which was conducted in 2010 by the authorities in the country, estimated the number of drug users - both drug abusers and recreational drug users – to be 2/1 million people. Iran has the greatest growth rate of drug abusers in the world, after Afghanistan, with 2/65 % growth rate (Drug Situation Analysis Report, 2011: 15). The main pillars of any program to reduce demand for drug in the world are: epidemiology, prevention, and treatment. Generally, treatment is divided into two parts, pharmacological and non-pharmacological (UN Demand Reduction Program, 2000: 19). Substance abuse treatment centers and rehabilitation centers for drug dependence are the components of pharmacological treatment, which have increased in comparison to previous years (Statistical Yearbook of the Ministry of Health, 2010). Many studies show the prevalence of relapse, which is quite common among drug abusers after getting rid of the addiction in treatment centers. Considering this high rate of relapse in drug addiction treatment programs and the ambiguous efficiency of drug treatment programs, this research seeks to study the rate of drug abusers in Fereydonkenar and Babolsar methadone maintenance centers, and measure the effectiveness of methadone maintenance centers in drug abuse control. In a general classification, research conducted about addiction treatment centers can be divided into three categories: (1) those in which addicts are the only important research subject and the treatment itself is not often considered important, (2) those in which two or more types of addiction treatments are compared, and (3) those in which one kind of treatment is evaluated. In general, the majority of research projects that have been done about addiction treatment centers in the past can be located in the first category of the above classification and the other two are less frequent. Measuring the effectiveness of drug treatment centers is often conducted in the second category. Most research projects in this category, however, include medical and psychological perspectives and the share of sociological perspectives is little. On other words, sociological theories of explaining reduction in deviant behaviors (drug abuse) have been used in the treatment of addiction in an insufficient way. In this study, various theories that explain deviant behavior, including social bond theory of Hirschi and Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory, Sutherland's theory of differential associations and self-esteem theory are used to form our research theoretical framework, according to which, the following assumption is formulated: the variable of participation in the treatment process is inversely related to drug abuse via interface variables such as attachment, belief, self-control, self-esteem, differential associations and attitudes to drug. The Research method in this study is survey and data collection was done via questionnaire. Research population consists of 1324 drug users who visited 11 methadone maintenance centers in Babolsar and Fereidoonkenar in the spring of 1391. Of this population, a total of 405 subjects were selected by stratified random sampling method. The data was analyzed using SPSS software and such procedures as multiple regression analysis. Attachment variables were assessed using 18 items, of which 6 items were related to dimensions of attachment to family and 12 items were related to dimension of attachment to religion. Of the 12 items measuring belief variable, 8 items were related to dimension of general belief, and 4 items were related to dimension of deviant activities. Also, a total of 10 items were used to measure self-esteem variables. Self-control variables were assessed using 6 items, of which 3 items were related to dimension of impulsive behavior and 3 items were related to dimension of risk seeking. To measure the variable of differential association, 4 dimensions were used: number of addicted friends, first initiation with addicted friends, the intensity of friendship with addicted friends and duration of friendship with addicted friends. The variable of attitudes to drug was also assessed using 16 items, of which 3 items were related to cognitive dimension, 6 items were related to emotional dimension, and 7 items were related to behavioral dimension. A total of 5 items were used to measure the variable of participation in the treatment process. Also to measure the variable of drug abuse, 3 items were used. All of these items were taken from previous research and were measured in a five-grade Likert scale.Discussion of Results and Findings suggest that 38.5 % of research subjects assess their participation rate in the treatment process to be low and 35.1 % assess their participation as moderate. However, 26.4 % reported to have a high participation rate in the treatment process. 90.9 % of subjects stopped using drug after entering to the methadone maintenance treatment centers. However, 2 % of the subjects reported their use to be at a low level, 2.4 % reported their use at an average level, and the 4.7 % reported their use at a high level. The most commonly used drug in Babolsar and Fereidoonkenar methadone maintenance treatment centers before and after treatment was opium. 90.9 % of drug users did not use any illegal narcotics after treatment. Multiple regression analysis results also show that the variables of differential association (beta coefficient = 0.15), treatment participation (beta coefficient = -0.13), attachment (beta coefficient = -0.13) belief (beta coefficient =- 0.12) and attitudes towards drugs (beta coefficient = 0.10) are the strongest predictors of the dependent variable. The results of the study also show that a significant and inverse relationship exists between participation in the treatment process and intermediate variables (attachment and belief) with drug abuse. Pharmacological treatment generally improves the patient's physical and mental condition. By improving the mental and physical health of the patient, his relations and social bonds with family, friends, acquaintances, institutions and organizations improve as well. Studies have shown that, as long as the addict is in the treatment system there is a lower risk of getting involved in social crimes. This bond encourages them to respect the rules and norms of the family and society. It also strengthens their belief in social laws and norms. This indicate that the belief system of patients is reinforced by being present in the treatment process.The present results suggest an inverse relationship between attitude towards drugs and participation in the treatment process. The presence in the methadone treatment center reduces depression and stress. Considering that attitude toward drug is directly related with stress and depression, we can say that the existence of stress and depression create a more positive attitude towards drugs. Also, the research findings show that there is a significant direct relationship between attitude towards drugs and drug abuse. So we can conclude that participation in the treatment process leads to reduction of drug abuse by negating patient's attitude towards drugs.The results suggest an inverse relationship between participation in the treatment process and differential association. Previous studies have also shown that as long as the patient is present in the treatment system there is a lower risk of committing social crimes. In general, we can conclude that participation in the treatment process leads to reduction of drug abuse by increasing associations and beliefs that are against drug abuse and by negating positive attitudes towards drugs.

Nowadays women are increasingly participating in economic activities in Iran. This has attracted a lot of attention, so some people consider its positive aspects and put emphasis on more engagement of women in different areas, while others consider its negative aspects and speak about the conflict between satisfactory performance at both job and family at the same time. Almost all of the surveys carried out about the counter relationship between job and family showed that the so called conflict can have negative influences on the quality of occupational and family lives, reducing therefore the individual satisfaction with life, increasing occupational and family problems, and resulting in depression and poor health. But in some of the studies, the focus has been on the importance of role reproduction and its positive influences on improving women's physical and mental conditions. Durkheim believes that "women's engagement in work increase their sense of independence, self-confidence and hopefulness, and help them to know themselves as useful and beneficial members of the society, strengthening therefore their solidarity with other members of the family". Given these different ideas, it seems that women's occupation is a controversial issue. Also, we should consider different individual, family and social dimensions of this problem, because occupation is a human phenomenon with various aspects. This study addresses the experiences of married female managers in Isfahan City to see what their experiences are with regard to occupation. This study uses phenomenology approach that is a qualitative method. In this viewpoint, we try to find the relationship between individual knowledge and social life. On this basis, a phenomenologist seeks to understand how human knowledge is present in social interactions, social status and social world. The Phenomenological method aims at understanding meaningful and deep layers of lived experiences of research subjects about a concept or phenomenon. In this regard, we interviewed 10 female managers of Isfahan City to understand what problems and challenges they experience as a result of performing job and family roles at the same time. Because the management is beyond a fulltime job and requires special skills in professional, individual and social contexts, and because the married women have obligations like being a wife or a mother, and in some of the cases there are interferes between their maternal and family functions, thus the sample consists of 10 female married managers with at least one child. In most phenomenological studies, the sample has been less than 10 subjects. The sampling method was purposeful and was carried out on a snowball basis. After 10 interviews we reached at data saturation. The data was analyzed using Collizzi's 7-step method. Discussion of Results & Overall, 118 codes were extracted after clustering, assimilating repeatable codes and forming new categorization. This formulated meanings were categorized in the bunches of topics, which in this study are recognized as conceptions (descriptive codes) or codes that are closer to the terms used by research subjects. After this step, all of the resultant ideas were integrated in the frame of a detailed description from underlying phenomenon (appendix to title of interpretative codes). At this step, 28 interpretative codes were extracted that were compacted into 10 interpretative codes. Finally, interpretative codes were reduced to 3 explanative (making clear) codes. Obtained Results and codes, in three descriptive (primary coding), interpretative (intensive coding) and explanative levels rely on women's experiences regarding occupational management in three levels of individual, social and family. In other words, using explanative codes, we could categorize these experiences in three areas of individual life, individual experience from family life and individual experiences from social and occupational life. Subject experiences from individual life is an explanative code, which, at interpretative level, is consisted of health status, subject personality, individual point of views and sports. The explanative code of subject experiences from family life is formed from interpretative codes of maternal role, housekeeping role, and partner role and power distribution in the family. Explanative code of subject experiences from social and occupational life explains their experiences during occupation and is constituted from interpretative codes of occupational motivation and job satisfaction. This study provides profound information about the subject's experiences with occupation. In comparison and summing up the experiences that are clustered in three mentioned areas with different levels, we encounter two different situations. In fact, one of them is subject's experience with occupational effects that increase their satisfaction with life, and the other is occupational effects that create contrast between job and family roles. Following subject's experiences in this context showed that having a job outside the home creates some problems such as anxiety about wellbeing of the children, mental and physical tiredness, lack of time for study at the university, facing massive home choirs with little rest, stress, feeling of being indebted to the family and so on. On the other hand, being employed as a manager has positive influences on different aspects of individual, social and family life. Some of the advantages, according to research subjects, are increasing self-confidence, diversification of life experiences and social relations, giving advice to husband, more interpersonal understanding, financial independence, satisfying personal needs, creating good spirit and mood, positive effects for society and so on. Other findings of the study show that the contrast between job and family is more acute when the subject has no ability or control over her occupation out of the house. In another words, when she cannot create a kind of coordination between the two dimensions. The participants believe that a way for solving the conflict between job and family is to have a schedule for tasks and responsibilities. If the subjects have the ability to make equilibrium between responsibilities and tasks in family and occupational life, and avoid any conflict in this regard, then it has positive effects in their lives. Some of the effects of this successful balance are: decreasing occupational stress, improving occupational performance, increasing matrimonial satisfaction, increasing the quality and quantity of the relationship with spouse, increasing life satisfaction, spirit and meaning in life, better relationship with children and relatives, increasing the quality of performing duties of the house and decreasing physical illness. Participant's experiences show that women can perform several roles simultaneously if they develop their capacities and abilities, and when they are doing two or three roles altogether, they can increase their strength and capabilities.

The globalization culture refers to liberal broadcasting of culture, advances in IT, and changes in value systems, meaning systems and practices and lifestyles of communities. One of the effects of cultural globalization, which can be reproduced in the framework of the new values and lifestyles, is individualism. As a modern concept, individualism stands in contrast to collectivism and with its "I" (instead of "we") guides human behavior. Although the passion and commitment to the goals of the group form the basis of any social gathering, in individualistic societies, people tend to act based on their individual interests. Thus, the prevalence of individualism in the era of cultural globalization can hinder social development and lead to such problems as social isolation, reduction of the convergence and mutual trust, narcissism, selfishness, creation of very fragile and unstable social relations, family fragmentation, etc. Among different age groups of society, the youth tend to have a higher level of cultural receptivity and more contacts with the symbols and instruments of modernity and global ideas. Hence, the study of cultural globalization and individualism among this particular group is of crucial importance. This study is based on quantitative approach in which the youth's tendency towards individualism and collectivism is measured in the city of Shiraz according to a theoretical framework composed of Giddens's views about globalization and lifestyle and Triande's theory about individualism and collectivism. The study method was survey and the data was collected by a research-made questionnaire. Sample size includes 533 young citizens of Shiraz who were selected by random quota sampling method. Formal validity and construct validity of the instrument were obtained by operationalization of lifestyle, individualism and collectivism as research variables; we used factor analysis to guarantee construct validity. The variable of individualism has four dimensions of self-reliance, competitiveness, ambition and emotional distance, whereas collectivism variable has three dimensions of unity and integration, self-sacrifice and interdependence.Discussion of Results and The results of the study show that individualism has a significant correlation with lifestyle in general and modern recreational lifestyle, figurative lifestyle, friendly lifestyle and lifestyle focused on body management in particular. Also, collectivism has a significant correlation with modern recreational lifestyle, religious lifestyle and recreational – traditional lifestyle and lifestyle in general. Such correlations confirm the theoretical framework and principles of the study, which talk about the modern nature of individualism. Considering today's modern culture, which is associated with an abundance economy and the variety of selections, it is possible to talk about different lifestyles because the youth play a role in creating different styles and preferences in fields such as body management, how to pass recreation time, cooperation pattern, etc. Such differences make it possible for the youth to easily show behaviors which are specific to certain lifestyles and are simultaneously different from others. As a result of such diversity in lifestyles, the youth experience less homogeneity and similarity and more feelings of independence, distinguished status, and individuality.

Given the widespread discussions around globalization, especially cultural globalization (Appadurai, 1996), it is often assumed that this process eventually leads to discouragement and weakening of different cultural particularities. In other words, the assumptions underlying these discussions is that in light of modern IC technologies, the world is moving towards a sort of homogeneity and, to be more specific, convergence with western cultures. In this process, the Internet and virtual social networks are usually referred to as influential tools in the expansion of globalization. According to this analysis, we should expect a gradual dissolution of micro and local cultures into a widespread, global and universal culture. Nevertheless, the events of actual world do not confirm such an analysis. Although globalization has in a way influenced all aspects of human life and not exclusively culture, at the same time we see a diversification and strengthening of particular cultures and collective identities. Today, virtual social networks provide a potentially empowering tool for people with different ethnic backgrounds to pursue their interests. One of the most important characteristics of these networks, with a considerable role in ethnic issues, is weak surveillance over users. In comparison to other means of communication, social networks give greater freedom to people, making it possible for them to express various identities, including ethnic identity. The question that is propounded in this study is about ethnic identity of Facebook’s Turk users. We intend to analyze how Facebook influences the identity of Turk users. Our research hypotheses include: 1) there seems to be a significant relationship between membership period in Facebook and ethnic identity, 2) there seems to be a significant relationship between the amount of Facebook usage and ethnic identity, 3) there seems to be a significant relationship between the level of participation and activity in Facebook and ethnic identity, and 4) there seems to be a significant relationship between aims of users in Facebook and ethnic identity. This is a quantitative study based on online survey, with an Internet-based, researcher-made questionnaire as its data-collecting tool. Given the fact that virtual space does not have a particular location in the real world, and because geographical variance makes accessibility to diverse and multiple users of Facebook practically impossible, and studying a user in actual environment is more effective, we decided to use online questionnaire technique. The validity of the questionnaire was achieved through construct and formal validity. Also, an acceptable rate of Cronbach’s Alpha was achieved for reliability. Research population included Turk users of Facebook social network in Iran in the year 1391. Because there existed no clear sampling framework to estimate the number of Iran's Turk users of Facebook, sampling method was decided upon according to convenience sampling or availability sampling in which subjects are selected on the basis of their availability or easiness to be found. Overall, 300 individuals voluntarily participated in the study. To be more specific, research questionnaire was initially sent to more than 7000 individuals who were identified as Turk users of Facebook. After collecting received questionnaires and elimination of incomplete or spoiled ones, 300 were included in research analysis. Dependent variable, that is, ethnic identity, is divided into four dimensions of emotional, lingual, geographical, and cultural. In order to analyze the data, various statistical techniques have been used including, among others, multiple-variable analysis and structural equation modeling. Discussion of Results & Research findings show that there are significant and direct relationships between ethnic identity in the one hand, and membership period, the amount of participation and aims users in Facebook on the other. In other words, by increase in these variables, ethnic identity of users increases as well. This is line with research findings of Fakohi and Ayari (1388), Hakimi (1390), and Fernandez (2002). In analyzing these findings one can argue that as a result of boundless expansion of virtual space in the context of globalization, not only have boundaries of ethnic identity not been disappeared, but gained a possibility of clearer manifestation. This is because virtual social networks such as Facebook are tools through which different kinds of individual identities can get away from silence and isolation, obtaining the opportunity of becoming more broadly recognized and seen. Likewise, not only each dimension of ethnic identity is not weaken in Facebook, but they are present in all capabilities of this social network. Turk users seem to try to fully benefit from all applications of Facebook, offering their perspectives and viewpoints on multiple issues. They become members of this social network with a strong feeling of ethnic identity because Facebook has given them an ample opportunity, express their ideas and bound with their other fellow citizens. Regardless of their geographical location and without shared physical presence or cohabitation, they can constitute a virtual community and use Facebook as a communication tool to peruse their multiple demands and expectations. They use this membership as a tool for self-awareness and presentation of their ethnic identity in terms of emotional, ethnic, geographical, cultural, and lingual dimensions.

Since the last decade, scientists, ordinary people and politicians have become increasingly aware of the importance of ethics in social research. Scientists, especially social scientists, found that the lack of ethics in the science may threaten the coherence, integrity and establishment of social research. Because in a sense science is constituted by society and relies on public financial and spiritual support, social scientists have social responsibility and they should get involved in a kind of research which is based on society and its characteristics. Therefore, we should pay more attention to social interests. Giving that we can say science has many social and professional aspects. Methods and Materials: This paper attempts to show the importance of ethical standards in applied sociology as well as in solving social problems. Our research methodology is of non-experimental research and secondary analysis. Accordingly, we present the questions of the research as follow:1)What are the reasons by which ethics become very important for applied sociology?2)How can ethical standards help us to reach at a successful practice of applied sociology?3)What is the ethical responsibility of applied sociology for clients?4)How do ethical standards can help to solve social problems?5)What is the ethical responsibility of sociologists in research and social intervention?Discussion of Results and This paper examines the role and importance of ethical standards in applied sociology. Applied ethics discusses the ways we use the normative ethical theories about different affairs. Also, applied ethics explicitly focuses on the objective and detailed things and it attempts to solve the ethical problems. Moreover, ethics implicitly includes practical norms by which we can distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behaviors. Ethical norms are very widespread so that sometimes we imagine that it is a part of common sense. They provide a series of ethical principles and rules that constitute the underpinnings of professional practice and responsibilities. These are used as guiding principles. These principles constitute a system of normative judgment for sociologists. These also guide us to a series of principles that sociologists may be faced with them in their professions.A series of professional associations accepted some of the ethical rules and strategies about the ethical behavior and the ways of empowerment of it. These rules summarize the principles and strategies that sociologists should be followed in their everyday professional activities. These rules are consisted of professional competency, integrity, scientific and ethical responsibility, respect for human rights and dignity and accepting variety and social responsibility. In general, applied ethics includes individual sphere as well as the social sphere. Applied ethics in the individual sphere consisted of family ethics, personal relationship such as friendship with others as well as relationship with the young and the elderly. Applied ethics in social sphere includes biotechnology, medicine, political, legal, and media issues, sports and so on.Applied sociology is a branch of sociology whose mission is to use theories and methods of sociology to directly intervene in social affairs and bring positive social change for solving social problems. Such sociological practice recognize benefits of direct engagement and intervention of sociology in the process of planning and problem solving to create social changes. Sociological practice as a model is a subset of sociological practice in general. One of the main points of sociological practice is to use applied social research and give clients the needed information by experts. This information is applied to describe social systems, problematic issues and problems that must be solved. The characteristic of such sociological practice is that it actively participates in the cliental systems, that it may be a part of a team group that use a sociological insight to help come up with applied strategies for change and solving problems. Therefore, as an agent of intervention and change, sociological practice include the active and ongoing participation of all experts and they should attempt to work with clients. Thus sociological practice includes a structuring formula by which it provides required instruments. Individuals and groups attempt to communicate with each other in order to get help and solve social problems.Ethics include principles and standards that constitute the basis of professional responsibilities and activities and these should be taking as guiding principles. These laws should supervise research procedures and be prepared to suggest ways of responding to complaints about unethical behavior. We recommend that there are five principles in different fields that sociologists should follow. They include: professional competency, integrity, scientific and ethical responsibilities, respect for the rights and status of humans and accepting their diversity.

Today, organizations are thought as organisms with independent identities different from those of their members. It is believed that they can affect the behavior of employees with their identity. Organizational citizenship has become an important component of every organization. Organizations have taken a serious responsibility to provide citizens with an opportunity for getting involved in the democratic values of society. Life satisfaction is the manifestation of changes in psychology, from dealing with psychopathological damages to optimizing quality of life. Happiness, a subset of the positive psychology, is considered to be a positive characteristic and one of human’s psychological needs. Organizational citizenship behavior, in a variety of organizational settings, intends to promote life satisfaction among employees. The present study is conducted to investigate the multiple relationships that are supposed to exist between organizational citizenship and life satisfaction of employees at the University of Isfahan. This article gives a summary of previous studies in which the relationship between organizational citizenship and life satisfaction of employees are investigated. By reviewing these studies we can see that organizational citizenship is effective in life satisfaction. They provide us with an evidence that it is possible to develop life satisfaction through improving organizational citizenship. Statistical population consists of all tenure employees who were employed in the academic year 2009-2010. The research method is one of descriptive-correlative. The statistical sample includes 99 employees (46 women & 53 men) who were selected by random cluster sampling method. Research instruments consist of two questionnaires (Poodsakoffs's organizational citizenship behavior questionnaire and Diener's life satisfaction questionnaire). The instrument's reliability was calculated through Alpha cronbach coefficient (0/85 and 0.79, respectively). The collected data was analyzed through descriptive (frequency, percentage, average) and inferential (regression analysis, t-test, ANOVA) statistics.Discussion of Results & The results of the study show that there is a significant relationship between organizational citizenship and life satisfaction among research subjects. In fact, the multiple dimensions of organizational citizenship (conscientiousness, sportsmanship, sacrifice, and humanism) can predict the life satisfaction of employees. However, there is not a significant difference with regard to demographic characteristics and research variables In general, some researchers have argued that the overall ratings of employee's performance correspond to an employee’s overall value to an organization. This argument suggests that the weight that managers attach, when forming evaluations, to dimensions of organizational citizenship (conscientiousness, sportsmanship, sacrifice, and humanism) corresponds to the impact that these behaviors have on life satisfaction.Organizations should constantly pay attention to organizational citizenship and its multiple dimensions. Higher levels of organizational citizenship will result in better life satisfaction of employees and rates of social disorders begin to reduce. In fact, organizational citizenship is one of the main components of any successful organization. As a component of any basic health system in an effective organization, organizational citizenship paves the way for life-long learning among employees and enhance employee's life satisfaction.We suggest that managers apply effective approaches in organizational citizenship in order to mobilize employees according to organizational goals. It is necessary that they consider improvising organizational citizenship and take personal and organizational factors together. Considering the importance of organizational citizenship in increasing employee's life satisfaction, it is recommended that managers take this issue seriously and move towards a high level of efficiency and effectiveness.

This paper examines the relationship between social capital and using Facebook social media. In order to tackle the issue, it should first be noted that according to the latest statistics the total number of Facebook users in the world has passed the threshold of one billion in September 2013. And, based on the latest statistics, Iran ranks 13th among all countries in terms of the total number of internet users in proportion to the total population. There is no official statistics depicting the total number of Facebook users in Iran but we calculated the proportion of internet usage and Facebook usage in various countries and realized that we can also use that proportion to estimate the number of Facebook users in Iran. It seems to be around 17 million. This indicates that both the internet and social media have penetrated into Iranian homes in an interesting rate, something that needs to be addressed scientifically. Accordingly, we approached the issue from a sociological point of view and used Ellison's theoretical framework to analyze the issue. To be more specific, we used Ellison's hypotheses to explain the positive correlation between a rise in the intensity of Facebook usage and a concurrent rise in social capital. We talk about bridging social capital to mean those relations that are weak and do not necessarily involve personal and emotional elements in relationships. These types of relations are quantitatively enormous and contribute to dissemination as well as acquisition of information but they cannot function as familial relationships (Ellison et al. 2007). Bounding social capital is also another concept by which we mean relations that are very intimate, especially where there is an exchange of emotional support (Steinfield, 2008). It should also be added that Robert Putnam considers displacement and social-geographical mobility to be one of the causes of the decline of social capital in the USA (Ibid). We consider maintaining social capital as the capacity to preserve connections with friends and old acquaintances (Ellison et al. 2007). We take social capital at an individual level. This paper assumes a mixed-method approach in which both qualitative and quantitative tools are used. It should nevertheless be emphasized that we used survey method as the major methodology of the study. In addition, we also used focus group interviews and participatory observations as auxiliary methods. Data gathering for the survey section took place in both online and offline environments. In order to select the necessary samples, we used cluster sampling for offline sampling in some selected boards of educational zones in Tehran and repeated a similar survey after 11 months using a random sampling method only to make sure that the reliability of the sampling method is achieved. For the online survey we used an online targeted cluster sampling to select subjects from among boys and girls who are high school in Tehran. We also used a general sampling method in online survey applying Abdollahyan's sampling technique which he calls it reverse sampling. In such a technique, sampling and survey are launched at the same time through Google drive.In order to evaluate the reliability of the scales we used Cronbach’s Alpha test and the results scored more than 0.7 for all scales indicating a desirable reliability level. We also used factor analysis and Promax rotation test in which the KMO coefficient scored higher than 0.75, meaning that the scales are reliable enough to meet the requirements of the reliability criteria. We also repeated this survey 11 months after the initial survey and the results confirmed the reliability and validity of measurement tools used in this research. For data analysis, we used Fuzzy and quantitative methods. We considered internet users as our unit of analysis and for the offline part we considered Tehran's high school students to be our unit of analysis. The final sample size taken from our units of analysis reached to 2437 subjects, on whom the whole study was conducted.Discussion of Results and We examined the research hypotheses in the following three 1- we evaluated the correlation between intensity of Facebook use and a rise in three types of social capital, 2- we evaluated the differences of mean among three types of social capital in two groups, i.e., control group including those who are Facebook users and experimental group including those who do not use Facebook; and, 3- we also used a qualitative and comparative analysis of comments offered by non-Facebook-users and Facebook users using focus group discussions. Some of the findings indicate that as using Facebook increases, the bridging social capital and maintaining social capital also increase. There is also a difference between those who use Facebook and those who do not, in terms of the level of social capital. It should be noted that the results indicate that the mean level of all three types of social capital among Facebook users are higher than the same level among those who are not Facebook users. Of other contributions of this paper we can refer to the fact that online environment does not necessarily weaken social relations. In some cases, it can even lead to the strengthening of those social relations that have been weakened by urban lifestyle.The results of the focus group discussions and participatory observations (Abdollahyan and Sheykhansari, 2012) indicate that working within Facebook environment leads to the generation of new vocabulary (lingo) which is then introduced to new generations of Facebook users. Also, the information turnover and its extent among Facebook users is so much, so that every time that users login in their account they have to face new information about various events. In contrast, those who are not Facebook users, would use other tools of mass media to update their information, based on personal interests. This comparison drags our attention to a very critical phenomenon, i.e., the rate of information exchanged among Facebook users about various socio-political events have grown drastically. The friendship circle of Facebook users becomes expanded because it includes all people that such a user might know during his/her course of life. Whereas the friendship circle of a non-Facebook-user is limited to those with whom the individual is acquainted with in his/her real life and can have a face to face interaction. The level of trust among Facebook users for promoting friendship is high and they accept friendship invitations very easily. They do not have to go through a lot of evaluations to choose their virtual friends. The non-Facebook-users, on the other hand, protect their private spheres and are cautious about new friendships, if they are to choose new friends. We also discovered that there is a prominent difference between Facebook users and non-Facebook users in terms of getting intimate or close with a friend. Nevertheless, taking maintaining family relations as criteria, we noticed that almost all family members in the same age had a tendency to get connected through Facebook. It is possible therefore that if a familial connection is somehow cut off in the real life, reconnection happens through same-age groups in Facebook. Generally, Facebook functions in two ways for families, i.e., on the one had it preserves connections at a minimal level and on the other hand, it is a means of monitoring one another without having any real connections. The results also indicate that using Facebook can improve psychological health of a person. Those Facebook users who have a low level of self-esteem, use Facebook as a means of strengthening their social relations. We also discovered that Facebook users have a higher level of satisfaction from their friendship relationships and like to be with their Facebook friends, even more than the company of friends in actual space.

As a competitive advantage in organizations, identity has become significant in recent years. It is a unique quality that distinguishes one person from others and is communicated through appearance, behavior and values of the person; the concept can be equally applied for an organization as well. Positive identity can help an organization to prevent a phenomenon which is called isolation of internal staff or organizational silence, that is, refraining from expressing ideas and opinions in an organization. The realization of organizational behavior depends on employee's behaviors and employee's behavior is in turn influenced by the power of organizational identity. Organizational identity is also affected by the perceived external behavior. The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between organizational identity and organizational silence. At first, we introduce these two concepts and their dimensions. Then research methodology and University of Isfahan are research subject are described. Finally, the findings and conclusions of the study are discussed. In terms of the purpose, this is an applied research and examines both qualitative and quantitative data. The research methodology is based on survey and correlation. Variables are divided into two categories: dependent and independent. Independent variables include components of organizational identity and the dependent variable is organizational silence. The research instruments include two standard questionnaires: organizational identity by Cheney (1983) containing 18 questions, and Vakola and Bouradas's questionnaire of organizational silence which has 17 items. To confirm face and content validities of the instruments we benefited from expert's opinions and factor analysis, respectively. Also, Cranach’s alpha coefficient was used to confirm the reliability of the instruments with 0.95 and 0.82 for each of the variables respectively.Discussion of Results and The results of the study indicate that the identity of the organization in which people work, strongly affects them. If it is intended that this identity provides a positive image of the organization, good management is essential to eradicate the silence in the room, so no threat comes from management to employees when they express their ideas. According to the findings, there is a high correlation between organizational identity and organizational silence in the sense that the stronger the organizational identity, the more the organizational silence in the organization. In summary, the results of this study showed a significant relationship between organizational identification and employee's organizational silence. In addition, a positive correlation was found between the duration of membership in organization, and employee's loyalty and similarity (with the head of the organization or other individual authorities) with organizational silence. At the end, the following suggestions can be recommended:• Organizations should provide a suitable system to reward innovative ideas, • They should run workshops designed to teach relationship skills to managers and supervisors,• They should define specific rules for the protection of employee's attitudes,• They should decide on how to organize different working groups,• They should change the organizational culture into an educational and didactic environment• They should create programs to improve the management of human resources for training decision making skills.• When possible, legislations and regulations should be delegated to working groups,

In this paper we try to explain epistemological problems of social sciences in Iran. We first distinguish between epistemological problems and non-epistemological problems. The theoretical context of research includes ideas from Habermas and Popper as they have interesting and very significant theories in this respect. When it comes to Habermas, we put emphasis on various elements of his work. For example, he has important ideas about philosophy of social sciences, including critique of dominant approaches in the social sciences such as positivism, hermeneutics, scientism, and so on. Habermas combines these critiques to open a new way towards a modern social science. Emancipation is a key element of such a new science. Thus he says the social sciences should increase our possibilities to confront the anti-freedom procedures of modern society. In each level of our study, we mention various critical points that have presented by other thinkers about Habermas’s theories. Also, we describe Habermas's answers to these critical views. After reviewing ideas of Habermas and their developments, we design a model for our research. When it comes to Popper, we review his theories on science, epistemology and philosophy of science and social sciences in particular. We design a model from his ideas as well. For example, we use his ideas on falsifiability, as they play an important role in distinguishing between scientific and non-scientific propositions. Other conceptions and principles of Popper's theory include critiques of historicism in the social sciences, the relationship between open society and philosophy, theory of three worlds, critiques of the myth of framework, logic of situation as a method for the social sciences and so on. Based on Pooper's and Habermas's ideas, we try to analyze possibilities of their ideas to solve the epistemological problems of Iran’s sociology. These problems are divided to two groups: intra- scientific problems and extra-scientific problems. The first group itself is again divided into two groups: epistemological and non- epistemological problems. Our emphasis is on the epistemological. In this research, we use documentary and library method. We study books and articles that have written by Pooper and Habermas. Also, we put emphasis on various problems in Iranian sociology. We read public literature about problems of social sciences in general and sociology in particular. We first design a theoretical framework and then use it to collect and analyze our data. In in last phase, we use Popper's and Habermas's ideas to describe a set of resolutions that can potentially help to develop the social sciences of Iran and pass the current crisis in them.Discussion of Results and As a conclusion, Pooper's and Habermas's ideas can help to solve epistemological problems of Iran’s sociology. This can be done in two ways: 1) by answering to epistemological problems at a global level. In this sense, they talk about the duty of sociology, methodology of social sciences, value freedom, fact and value, rationality, reductionism, realism and anti-realism, knowledge and human interests, and so on. 2) by answering to epistemological problems at a national level. In this respect, they talk about possibility of local or particular sociology, domination of pseudo-positivism approaches in social research, the increasing gap between practice and theory, domination of atomism in research, and so on.We try to summarize these findings in various tables. In fact, the results at each level are recognized and compared with each other. Final results are shown in the new tables. We believe that sociologists in Iran should focus on important agendas, including providing appropriate context for formulation a local sociology, designing a new philosophical foundation for the social sciences, making a connection between the global and the local, and developing alternative approaches for positivism.

Today, sport is considered as a basic need in all over the world. Participation in sport activities professionally, until recently was a male activity and women had no significant contribution in sport activities. After World War II, however, women's disposition to sport activities changed, because of factors such as improvements in leisure time, living standards, attention to health and fitness, mass media effects, paying more attention to sport achievements, and change in traditional gender roles. However, despite the importance and necessity of sport participation for women, women's participation in sport activities is still limited as a global rule. For example, sport participation rates for women is 56% in Britain and 59.9% in Australia. In the US, more than 55.2% of the population of women are overweight on the basis of body mass index. In addition, 37.9% of the American women don’t have any physical activity during the week. Sport participation of women is not also satisfactory in Iran and the results of some national surveys show that, about 41.2% of Iranian women do get more or less involved in sport activities but others do not. Many reasons have been proposed to explain women unwillingness to participate in sport activities. They can be classified into three main categories including practical, personal and socio-cultural barriers, and also many studies have been conducted to investigate influential factors on women’s sport participation. In the categories of personal and socio-cultural barriers, rarely have been studied the factors that influence women’s attitude towards participation in sport activities. So, the main goal of the present research is to investigate the relationship between social trust, self-esteem and instrumental personality and women’s attitude towards sport participation in Iran. The research is a survey study. Research population include all women aged 15-30 in Jahrom in Fars province. Sample size is 336 individuals who were selected by means of random multi-stage sampling method. The measurement tool is a set of four researcher-made questionnaires including attitude towards sport participation (2 dimensions and 12 items), social trust (2 dimensions and 10 items), self-esteem (2 dimensions and 10 items) and instrumental personality based on Talcott Parsons’s theory (3 dimensions and 15 items). The Validity of the scales was measured using factor analysis technique. Based on the results, KMO test is 0.79 for attitude towards sport participation, 0.73 for social trust scale, 0.74 for self-esteem scale, and finally 0.66 for instrumental personality scale, which show that the sampling is adequate. Moreover, Bartlett test, is significant for all scales, suggesting that there exist significant correlations among variables. In total, the factor analysis ultimately led to delete 2 items of attitude towards sport participation, 2 items of social trust, 4 items of self-esteem and 7 items of instrumental personality scales. Discussion of Results and In total, 336 individuals answered our questions. The mean age of respondents is 22.6 years old and the mean years of education is 13 years. 194 respondents (57.7%) were single and 142 (42.3%) were married. 271 respondents (80.7%) were unemployed and 65(19.3%) were employed. 95 respondents (28.3%) had one or more children and 241(71.7%) had no child. On the basis of the scales results, the mean of attitude towards sport participation was 29.2 (within a range of 10-50), the mean of social trust was 18.8 (within a range of 8-40), the means of self-esteem was 16.8 (within a range of 6-30) and the mean of instrumental personality was 25.4 (within a range of 8-40). Based on the descriptive research findings, we can say that the mean score for attitude towards sport participation is low in Iran. This finding is compatible with other studies in which women's sport participation is not satisfactory in Iran. For the purpose of evaluating the relationship between independent variables and dependent variable, namely attitude towards sport participation, multivariate regression analysis was used, the results of which are presented in Table No. 1. On the basis of the figures shown in Table 1, we can say that there is a positive significant relationship between social trust and age with attitude towards sport participation and there is no significant relationship between instrumental personality, self-esteem, marital status, having children or not, education and occupation with attitude toward sport participation. The results also show that social trust and age are able to explain about. 09% of the variance of the attitude towards sport participation. Although a positive and significant relationship between social trust and women’s attitude toward sport participation is compatible with theoretical framework, lack of significant relationship between instrumental personality and self-esteem with the attitude towards sport participation is not compatible with theoretical framework. Therefore, it should be considered and justified in terms of socio-cultural situation of women in Iran.

The new age of human life is described and explained by new terms and theories such as globalization, age of information explosion, age of media, postmodernism, information community and network community. Among these, the media plays a much more significant role. By controlling, handling, and directing the public as well as exciting and using it, the media plays a serious role in the domain of power. Today, this role has become more serious since media enjoys more variety in terms of number and quality. It covers a broad range of audio, visual, written and electronic media, each of which has its own audience. The Internet is one of the most influential modern communicative technologies which have substantially influenced all aspects of human life. The Internet has become an unrivalled means of communication due to its popularity among people and its wide geographical influence within national borders. The Internet has created sources of influence beyond the control of governments and power institutions in societies. Many thinkers believe that new forms of electronic media have created a new public space for societies and even the political community has been drastically influenced by this interaction. Empirical evidence shows that there is a sort of correlation between the growth of mass media and the development of democratic culture. Some researchers believe that the media is a prominent element of democracy. According to Manuel Castells, for example, all new policies go through the framework of electronic media. This interconnectedness of the life space and modern media have become so substantial that it has influenced the main aspects of life and changed politics which act as an important part of this space. The mass media connects different elements of democratic discourse and leads to the production of democratic behaviors and policies. BY enjoying from qualities such as interactivity, simultaneity of communication, accessibility, lack of central control, lack of ownership of the network, and avoidance of censorship, the Internet has created a good space for reviving the lost aspects of political cooperation and democracy in developed countries and support fledgling democracies in the developing societies. Thus lack of such media in society undermines the concept of democracy. The internet is making vast, drastic changes in the nature, forms and structures of power in different developed and developing countries and this has encouraged researchers to inquire about how and how much these changes will affect people and what are the current and future impacts of the Internet on the political life of societies. Thus this study attempts to investigate the relationship between the internet usage and political participation among students of the University of Isfahan. This study is a survey research. The population comprises of all undergraduate, postgraduate and PhD students of the University of Isfahan in all majors in the academic year 2011-2012. The sample comprises of 147 students selected by cluster random sampling in which, first, 185 students were selected as the initial sample and then, after discarding flawed questionnaires, 147 individuals were included in the final analysis. Each faculty was considered as a cluster. In the next step, each class in that faculty was taken as one cluster. Considering research theoretical framework, research questions are as follows: Does the type of Internet usage have any relationship with political awareness, political discussion, and internal/external political effectiveness? If there is a relationship between the type of Internet usage and aspects of political participation? What impacts does the use of the Internet have on political awareness, political discussion, and internal/external political effectiveness?By Internet usage and political participation, we mean the score one obtains in the Internet use and political participation questionnaires. Due to the significance and sensitivity of the subject, we used two specific questionnaires of Internet use and political participation. In order to measure students’ political participation, a questionnaire including 22 items was used. Amanda Zima’s (2006) political cooperation model was used in designing this questionnaire. In order to determine the validity and reliability of the research tools, first a number of questions were designed by individuals such as some of the professors of political sciences at the University of Isfahan and then after discussing and investigating them, 22 questions were selected. Then they were experimentally tested on a group of 40 (20 female and 20 male) students. The Peterson’s reliability coefficient of the questionnaire varies between 0.44 and 0.69. Likewise, the reliability coefficient of this scale is measured by the Cronbach’s alpha method. The questionnaire is divided into three categories of political awareness, political discussion and political effectiveness (internal and external). Discussion of Results and As is shown in Table no. 1, the descriptive features of the research sample indicate that 88 of the participants were male and 59 were female. Also, 85 of the participants were MA students. The mean and the standard deviation of the participants’ age was 23.08 and 7.31, respectively. The mean and the standard deviation of income for all the sample was 386547.08 and 216715.13, respectively.The present study attempts to investigate the impacts of the Internet on the aspects of political awareness, political discussion and political effectiveness among students of the University of Isfahan. The findings reveal that there is a significant relation between the use of the Internet and different aspects of social participation. These findings correspond to the findings of other empirical studies conducted by Loypa and Pilot 2002, Noris 2000, Pasek et al. 2006, Gibson et al. 2005, Luskin 1990, Daverz 2007. In fact, the Internet reduces costs of communications and understanding of the information. It produces better opportunities for social participation and thus develops new groups and increase democratic participation.The findings also reveal that recreational programs cause a decrease in political participation. In this regard, although the relation between recreational use and its impact on internal and external political effectiveness is not significant, as the findings show, individuals who use recreational programs (e.g. Internet games, movies, chatting, etc.) more than others, have lower political awareness and engage in less political discussions in proportion to those who do not use such media. These findings correspond to the findings of studies by Wick et al. 2001, Mautz 2002, Putnam 2000. It seems that networks, groups, and communication among users of social networks do not follow national boundaries the way the old media did. Weblogs, Facebook, Twitter, Friendfeeds, etc. are among websites which have a great potential for establishing networks on the Internet. Sometimes these networks act as institutions to confront political maturity. Therefore, according to the findings of this study, those individuals who use the Internet for recreational purposes have a lower sense of responsibility toward social problems and the society in general. Thus, it could be concluded that one of the consequences of the phenomenon of addiction to entertainment websites is political isolation.In this regard, as autonomous power centers, social networks help enhance the personalization of policy. In this process, politics serves as a show and the audience serves as the spectators. In these social networks, politics is not normally analyzed as a rational process. Rather, it mostly acts as a set of symbolic measures to which people react. Under the influence of these social networks, people appeal more to the media and become isolated. It seems that the logic of social networks depends on hindering all kinds of discourses ruling over the political system. In addition, contrary to “old” holistic media, social networks lack public spaces where all people could get involved in dialogues and discussions.The research findings reveal that the use of news channels and training programs enhances political awareness and internal/external political effectiveness among citizens. Studies conducted by Pulat 2005, Gibson et al. 2005, Daverz 2007 and Solop 2000 corroborate the relation between these variables. By conveying information and news about events in a correct and precise way, training and news channels enhance people’s awareness of themselves and of political authorities and by receiving people’s opinions and conveying them to the authorities they create a sense of political effectiveness and liberty in the public toward the government. In a public space and in a set of coordinating factors, scientific and news media are able to play a significant part in establishing trust between the people and the government and encourage people to have more participation. Besides, by training the citizens and explaining to them what benefits the media have for all aspects of their lives, these media can also foster the necessary motivation for political participation. In sum, the modern media have strangely changed the procedures of people’s political participation and have blended them with the cyberspace in such a way that in each election different candidates and parties try to use the Internet as the best place for their political advertising. By controlling the direction of the society’s political culture in order to achieve harmony with the political system, such media is able to help create motivation, and unify and direct people towards the main goals of the system. They can be at the service of the system to use most of the society’s potentials.

Organizational social capital is defined as a source of social relations within the organization. As a sort of collective criteria, social capital has a vital role in organizations and it is said to be a managerial phenomenon with strong emphasis on trust, common values, joint behaviors, communication, cooperation, mutual commitment, and networking. In fact, this type of capital is an important organizational capability, which can affect organizations for creation and distribution of knowledge. In other words, it is a sustainable organizational advantage. Usually, transferring information and knowledge at macro and micro levels among people and organizations depends on people who do such transmission urgently and fast. They can in fact influence the advancement of interpersonal relationships. Because of this, the importance of communication and interpersonal relationship among personnel based on trust plays a key role in developing and utilizing knowledge. If an organization can improve effective interpersonal relationships among its staff, groups and different departments, then information transaction may work effectively and an efficient management of organizational knowledge can be assured. In this regard, creating and developing a culture based on social capital is essential for knowledge management in organizations. Hence the author of this paper decided to study and examine the relationship between social capital, and different dimensions, processes and angles of knowledge management. To proceed with research methodology, first a deep and careful literature review took place in the context of social capital and knowledge management. Also, in order to implement and carry out the research, personnel of the Welfare Organization in Yazd Province were determined as statistical population. The sample size was calculated according to Cochran formula using random sampling method. In order to collect data, standard questionnaires were applied (Filliusetal (2000) for knowledge management and Ghoshal (1998) for social capital). Further, for data analysis, relevant statistical tools such as correlation coefficient and regression were applied.Discussion of Results and The findings of the research show that there is a positive and significant relationship between knowledge management and social capital in the sense that with improvement in organizational social capital, knowledge management improves as well. Our findings showed that development of social capital in the Yazd's Welfare Organization strongly boost up knowledge management. Therefore, advancement in social capital leads to creation and transference of knowledge in the organization.Other findings of the study also show that three dimensions of social capital reinforce knowledge management activities in organization. In other words, social, relational and structural capitals have positive and significant relationships with knowledge management. Because of what was found in this study, it is expected that significant relationships between dimensions of social capital and knowledge management lead to the advancement of knowledge management in any welfare organization.In general and with respect to these findings, it is concluded that social organizations should try to promote their social capital for an effective management of organizational knowledge. They can invest in social capital by means of effective communicational training programs, and cultivating a proper climate in the relationships of managers and employees so they can become learning and creative organizations.