فصلنامه جامعه شناسی کاربردی
سال بیست و پنجم شماره 1 (پیاپی 53، بهار 1393)

Happiness is one of the most urgent demands of human beings, which plays a major role in the psychological and social elevation of the community. In fact, it can be argued that all human endeavors in life are directed towards achieving happiness. Therefore, if we want to have progress and development, vitality and happiness are important variables. Sustainable development will be realized when productive forces of society, namely, women and men are happy. Women, in particular, who are wives and mothers of society should be strong, happy and alive as they are at the center of the family, educating children with qualities such as self-esteem and optimism. In recent decades, the concept of happiness has been appointed as one of the cornerstones of our development. Despite the need to elevate women as a key element in the development of social and family relationships, rarely has research been done to highlight the role of women. This study aims at understanding the amount of social happiness that rural and urban women in Delijan experience and the most important factors that influence individual and social dimensions of this happiness. There are various studies that assess factors affecting happiness and ways towards its improvement. Different factors such as gender differences, age, religion, marital status, education, income (wealth) and personality type are mentioned in this regard. In this study, we combine different perspectives on social happiness and measure it. This is a study-based research. The study population includes all women (aged between 15-49 years old) living in 8 areas of the city of Delijan and one rural district called Joshagh. Using Cochran formula, a sample of 700 individuals were selected. The purpose was to measure the influence that such background variables as age, marital status, place of residence and area of residence), and other important variables like socioeconomic status, quality of life, sense of social justice, social acceptability, satisfaction with life, religious beliefs and hopes for the future may have on women's feeling of social happiness. The data was collected by using both questionnaire and interview as data-collecting tools. In terms of timing, the he study was conducted in July 2012 and the data were analyzed by using SPSS software. Discussion of Result & Descriptive statistics indicate of the studied urban women, 40/3% are teenagers, 36/8% are young and 23% are middle-aged. Also, in terms of marital status, 70/8% of them are married, 24/9% are single, and the rest have no partner either because of divorce or death. In rural areas, 57/6% are minors, 24/8% are young, and 17/6% are in middle age. Also, 187 cases (56/7%) were married, and 130 (39/4%) were single. The majority of women in urban areas (39/2%) were in the average socio-economic status, while the majority of women in rural areas (90 per 27/3%) belonged to a lower socio-economic status. Religious believes were strong in women both in rural areas (74/5%) and in urban areas (76/5%). Women's satisfaction with life in rural areas was (34/5%), while for urban women who live in Delijan this figure was a little bit lower (33/5%), indicating that they are moderately satisfied with their lives. The social acceptance of women in urban and rural communities is estimated to be at an average level. Procedural and distributive justice among the majority of women in urban areas (55/7%) and rural areas (43/9%) were moderate. Although the quality of education of rural women in Joshagh (30/6%) is not desirable, more urban women (55/7%) enjoy from educational opportunities that leads to favorable assessment of the quality of education in urban areas. Overall, it can be said that hope to meet future needs and desires of a better life is more in rural areas than in urban areas. The results also show that individuals have different levels of happiness. Married women tend to be happier than single women who are without husbands due to death and/or divorce. Based on the findings of the analysis of social factors and variables, it can be said that social acceptance and four categories of life satisfaction, including quality of life, religious beliefs, a sense of social justice and socio-economic status can explain the highest level of social happiness. Therefore, we dare to claim that social happiness of a community, depends on the quality of life and sense of justice in society.

In the second half of the 1980s, new concerns emerged under the title of ‘public understanding of science’ (PUS). This transition is marked by the influential report of the Royal Society of London in 1985. Like the previous cases, the diagnosis is that of a public deficit, who does not show sufficient support for science and this makes scientific institutions concerned. The Royal Society took the view of many of its members and assumed that better knowledge will be the driver of positive attitudes hence the axiom: ‘the more you know, the more you love it. This research agenda moved away from knowledge to attitude, and concerns for scientific literacy carried over to test the expectation ‘the more you know, the more you love it’. Likewise, the emphasis shifted from a dichotomy to a continuum: one is not literate or illiterate, but rather is more or less knowledgeable. And the correlation between knowledge and attitude became the main focus of research. But the expectation that better knowledge drives positive attitudes is not confirmed. Although generally there may be some relations, there is no correlation at all when it comes controversial issues. Well and less well-informed citizens are to be found on either side of the controversy. Social psychology, though not the Royal Society, tells us that knowledge it not a driver of attitude, but a quality index: attitudes, whether positive or negative, that are based on knowledge are held more strongly and thus resist change. Well-informed and less well-informed citizens make up their minds differently, but do not necessarily come to different conclusions. PUS research extended its concepts, methods and data. Attitudes to science may be part of a general political sophistication, a public resource not specific to science. The debate over public deficits also stimulated complementary data streams, such as qualitative discourse analyses and mass media monitoring, which reveal long-term trends such as the medicalization of science news over the last 30 years. PUS had a rationalist and a realist agenda. For the rationalists, attitudes arise from information processing with a rational core. It is assumed that if people had all the information, and were able to understand probabilities, they would be more supportive of science. The battle for the public is a battle for minds with more information and the correct statistical reasoning (i.e. risk perception). For the realists, attitudes are emotional relations with the world. How emotions may relate to rationality is a vexing question. Realists understand emotions with the logic of advertising. Thus, the battle for the public mind becomes a battle for hearts. How to attract public attention? The issue becomes one of ‘sexing up’ the evidence. The public is the consumer who is to be seduced. In this logic, there is little difference between scientific news and washing powder. The critique of PUS again focused on the deficit models of knowledge or attitude: Negative attitudes are neither an expression of lack of knowledge nor of good judgment. However, the attribution of a public deficit expresses the timidity or even ‘institutional neuroticism’ (Brian Wynne), the diffuse anxieties and condescendence of scientific actors vis-à -vis the public. The public deficit model is in fact a self-fulfilling prophecy: the public, a-priori deficient, cannot be trusted. Mistrust on the part of scientific actors will be paid back in kind with public mistrust. Negative public attitudes then confirm the assumption among scientists: the public is not to be trusted. This circularity called for ‘soul searching’ among scientific actors. The aim of the current research is also to investigate validity, reliability and normalization of "public understanding of science" scale in Isfahan city.

In the current research, the statistical population is comprised of all the residents of Isfahan city. This study is designed as a survey. The research sample was gathered through quota sampling. Data have been analyzed by SPSS and AMOS. The method of analysis was Confirmatory Factor Analysis. For determining validity and normalization, 384 participants and for reliability two sample of 40 individuals were chosen. In order to determine the validity of "public understanding of science" questionnaire, the methods of "Confirmatory Factor Analysis" and "content validity" were used. And for determining reliability of the questionnaire, the consistency coefficients and test-retest reliability were used.Discussion of Results &

Findings showed that the variable public understanding of science has four primary dimensions, including: "interest in scientific subjects", "knowledge about scientific concepts", "level of scientific knowledge" and "attitude towards science and technology", as well as eleven sub-dimensions. At first, first-order confirmatory factor models were used to validate the measures used for each of the dimensions of public understanding of science. At the end, after eliminating items with a low factor loading, analysis yielded acceptable fit indices: A good estimate of H-indices was obtained in the Second Order Confirmatory Factor Analysis (2nd –order CFA) conducted on the measure of public understanding of science. In Second Order Confirmatory Factor Analysis (2nd –order CFA), Fit indices showed that specified model is confirmed by the data gathered: RMSEA= 0/09 df = 40 Chi-square= 118/1 P= 0/07 CFI= 0/89 PCFI = 0/62 CMIN/D.F =2/9 The results of the reliability test are at an acceptable level, with Cronbach Alpha coefficient being above 0.7, and test-retest reliability coefficient above 0.69, for all the dimensions of public understanding of science. The total reliability of the questionnaire was also acceptable, with Cronbach Alpha coefficient equal to 0.84, and test-retest reliability coefficient equal to 0.69. Transformation of raw score of normalizing sample (n=384) into T and Z score and percentiles failed for the norms of questionnaire. The mean of the standard scores is zero, indicating that the distribution of the data has been symmetric. The developed questionnaire in this study, therefore, is valid and reliable and, from now on, can be used in the social studies for the purpose of measuring public understanding of scientific concepts. Citizen's interest in science and technology is more than average level. The results of the research show that the majority of citizens in Isfahan have positive attitudes towards science and technology, but level of their scientific knowledge is less than the average level.

In nowadays’ world, health, as a multi-dimensional and multi-layered phenomenon, is among the basic human’s rights, and as there is a clear and direct relationship between human’s progress and the status of society's health, broad definitions have been given for this concept throughout the history. According to World Health Organization, (WHO) health does not merely mean not being patient or not seeing any harm (injury), but, it includes enjoying from physical, psychological and social well-being. Social well-being means an assessment of the person's functions in society. According to Keyes's view (1988), quality of life and individual performance cannot be evaluated without social norms. In tune with this approach, we consider social well-being in terms of different functions. We assume an individual can function properly when he or she considers society as a meaningful, and understandable environment with potential forces for progress and development, and he or she feels that they belong to social groups. The importance of identity and the scope of its influence on the attitudes and interests of young people to accept social roles and responsibilities can prevent social problems from further expansion. While the physical and mental health status of women and men have been studied in the past, the social aspect of health and its relationship with well-being has been given little attention. The present paper is an attempt to determine the relationship between these variables. The method of this study is survey that research population includes the 18-29 year old men and women of Tehran, of whom 384 were selected as sample size using cluster sampling method. The unit of analysis is the individual and data-collection tool is a researcher-made questionnaire, which is based on a Likert scale. In order to validate the questionnaire, we used face validity and for reliability, we relied on Alpha Cronbach's reliability test.Discussion of Results & Descriptive findings indicate that the average gender identity is higher in women than in men. Perhaps the reason for this is of cultural developments, changes in income and increase in women's participation in economic and educational opportunities. When it comes to different dimensions of participation, namely, social integration and development, again women have a higher average than men. In fact, participation let women in today's society feel that they are part of the society, that their lives have purpose. Thus they become hopeful about the future and developments in society. When it comes to the range of variation in social adaptation and acceptance, men do have a higher average. This means that men have a positive view towards human nature. Other findings of the study indicate that social health varies by gender and marital status of women, but this does not apply to men. The main assumptions of this research are confirmed. The variable of trust as a mediator in the relationship between two main variables of the study plays a decisive role. The regression analysis revealed that six variables (personal gender identity, social gender identity, trust, gender, accountable education and age) are able to explain 43% of the variance of the dependent variable, which is social health. Our analysis showed that the variable of trust, in comparison to other variables, has a more influence on social health. A person with a high gender identity achieves social trust in relationships with others in the community and this will be a source of social health. Given the fact that most previous studies correspond with the findings of our study and support them, one could say that this is a powerful theoretical approach, whose results can be safely generalized to other populations.

Organizational justice is a key factor necessary for the success of every organization. In order to keep employees satisfied, committed, and loyal to the organization, the organization needs to be fair in its system regarding distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice. When employees feel that they are treated fairly by the organization in every aspect, they are inclined to show more positive attitude and job satisfaction follows. Issues like allocating monetary resources, hiring employees in organizations, policy making and policy implications that affect decision maker and the people who are affected from such decisions require special attention in respect of justice. Organizations need effective managers and employees to achieve their objectives. They cannot succeed without their personnel''s efforts and commitment. Employee's job performance and satisfaction are considered to be key variables that impact the performance of organizations (Rad & Yarmohammadian, 2006). In a highly competitive environment, global businesses must strive to identify factors that influence the employee's performance and job satisfaction. Employees with higher job satisfaction feel important as they believe that the organization will have a tremendously successful future in the long run and would care about the quality of their work therefore, they are more committed to the organization with higher retention rates and tend to have higher productivity (Fatt, 2010). Given the importance of this issue, this study aimed at examining the relationship between organizational justice as it includes three components (distributive justice, procedural justice and interactional justice) and job satisfaction among staff of the Welfare Organization, branch of Isfahan. This is a survey study, based on descriptive- correlation method. The population of study was estimated to be nearly 689 individuals. Based on Cochran formula, 86 individuals were selected by using random sampling method. A researcher-made questionnaire was used as data-collecting instrument, which is based on Likert 5-degree scale. Also, we used Minnesota Standard Job Satisfaction questionnaire, which contains 100 items. We had to use these instruments to cope with the constraints of time and budget limitation. Using Alpha Cronbach coefficient, we guaranteed reliability of the instruments as they were 0.93 & 0.92, respectively. They Questionnaire's content validity were also confirmed by experts. Data analysis was does through inferential statistics (Pearson Correlation coefficient, independent sample t-test, one way ANOVA and regression) using SPSS software.Discussion of Results and This study explored employees’ perceptions about organizational justice in the form of distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice. It also examined how these perceptions correlate with job satisfaction. The results show that organizational justice is in a meaningful relationship with job satisfaction (r=0.43). Also there is a significant relationship between all organizational justice components and job satisfaction. The results of the regression analysis showed that procedural justice is the best predictive of job satisfaction. This finding suggested that organizational justice precedes job satisfaction as well. It means that if employees find their organization just and fair in distribution, processes and interactional system, they become more satisfied with regard to payment, future progress opportunities, work schedule, co-workers, and supervisors. The results of this study support previous studies in the sense that they proved that employees are more satisfied when they perceive their outcomes and rewards to be fair as compared to those who think are being treated unfairly. If employees feel discontent regarding their rewards they may decide to leave the organization. There is a positive and significant relationship between organizational justice and overall job satisfaction, which means organizational justice, leads to overall job satisfaction. So in order to increase positive attitudes and job satisfaction, efforts must be made in management to improve the organizational justice system. So that satisfied and committed employees show less turnover intensions. This fact implies that job satisfaction can be depended directly on the level of organizational justice as it is being perceived by the employees. At the end, it should be pointed out that there was no significant difference in this study between views of personnel about organizational justice and job satisfaction in terms of gender, age, or employment status.

Body image is a complicated phenomenon including physiological, psychological and sociological indexes. Recently, new studies are conducted about body image. From a psychological perspective, it is defined, as "an image of the body one has in mind and the way that the body is seen". In fact, Body image is a mentality means that everyone is concerned with his /her appearance. Much of this mindset, positive or negative, roots in values of the society in which it is promoted. In every society, there are certain patterns and characteristics associated with cultural ideals of beauty and the ways that female body should look and appear. One specific example of this, which is accepted in most societies, is being slim. However, appearance and its ideals have a broad meaning and cannot be considered only from a physiological perspective. Instead, it can be studied from a sociological perspective, as it is the society which dictates the appropriate appearance for people. To the extent that a person tries to have an acceptable appearance, he or she is accepted by the community. The society and culture in which a person is born and grows, teaches them how to define and interpret many of the changes that occur in the body. It is through our perceptions of our body that we come to understand how to establish relations with others, and may also affect the responses that we receive from others. Considering the fact that mass media and Western values are among the most important influential sources by which body image is defined, this study examines the relationship between Western values and mass media with body image The statistical population of this study includes all 15-and-above years old women in Tabriz. Sample size was chosen through Cochran Formula, according to which 316 women were selected by means of cluster sampling method. This study is done through survey method and we used questionnaire for collecting the data. Also, we analyzed the data by using SPSS software. Discussion of Results and The results of the study show that there is a positive and significant correlation between Western values and the effects of mass media with body image. Two variables, namely internalizing Western values and using the Internet, could totally explain 19% of the variance of body image. The existence of such positive relationship between body image from one hand and mass media and western values on the other hand, is in contrast with similar studies in other countries. This difference could be attributed to cultural differences between Iran and other countries.

Marital life is an important dimension of life for anyone. One of the most important qualities of marital relationships is communicational cycles and patterns which are formed between couples and often are stabilized by repetition through lapse of time. That is, when any of the partners do something with regard to the other, and it is continued for some time, it may lead to the formation of some communicational patterns between them and becomes stable. If patterns which direct the couple’ interactions suffer from dysfunctional characteristics, conflicts may arise, leading couples to experience dissatisfaction in their marital relationships. The demand – withdraw marital communicational cycle is one of the most prevalent communicational patterns in which one spouse demands intimacy, criticizes the other and complains about his or her partner’s apathy while the other avoids intimacy and reacts with withdrawal and/or passivity. This pattern usually appears as wife demand/husband withdrawal. It intensifies little by little and leads to marital dissatisfaction. In this research we want to know how such variables as gender stereotype and power differences between men and women can influence this cycle. The purpose of this investigation was to study the relationship between sociological variables and demand – withdraw marital communicational cycle and to determine the intensity of the relationship between gender stereotype, sense of power and demographic variables with the aforementioned cycle. The research tools included: gender beliefs questionnaire (in order to assess gender stereotypes), sense of power questionnaire (in order to assess sense of power), demographic questionnaire (in order to assess demographic variables, i.e. age, job, length of marriage, number of children) and Christensen & Sullaway’s communicational patterns questionnaire (CPQ) (in order to assess the demand–withdraw marital communicational cycle). Discussion of Results & The regression results showed that gender stereotypes, sense of power and number of children were all significant predictors for demand/withdraw pattern. The correlation results showed that increasing in stereotypical thinking and the number of children can lead to an increase in the probability of demand/withdraw cycle. Also, more sense of power has a positive correlation with the “withdrawal pattern” and less sense of power has a positive correlation with the “demand pattern”. The results demonstrate that the variables which were considered in the analysis of the cycle in this research are important and can help relevant agents to provide opportunities for improving couple relationships.

As a complex organization, universities are important in achieving national goals and developing human capital, which is one of the main capitals of all organizations. The effectiveness of this capital depends on providing an appropriate working environment and teamwork, in which communication and collaboration with other members of the organization and participation in the affairs of the organization can take place. Nowadays, methods and practices of teamwork in various forms is the issue of interest in organizations. In the present century, teamwork is considered as one of the basic necessities of organizations to succeed. As a strategy to align employees’ goals with the organization, social responsibility is essential in implementation and effectiveness of teamwork. Therefore the present study examined the relationship between social responsibility and teamwork among the staff of Urmia University. The method of research in this study is correlational-descriptive. Research population is consisted of all the staff working in Urmia University who were permanently employed by the University. They were about 1040 individuals. Sample size included 204 employees, who were selected by means of stratified sampling method. The research instrument was an standardized questionnaire, collecting data for two variables of social responsibility (based on Carroll's model) and teamwork (based on Lnchyvny model). To guaranty the validity of the questionnaires, experts’ opinions in the field of management and education were used. Also, to guaranty the reliability of the questionnaires, Alpha Cronbach test was conducted in a pilot study including a sample of 40 individuals. The Alpha for variable social responsibility was 813/0, and for variable teamwork 861/0, both of which are acceptable. The collected data was analyzed through Pearson correlation and multiple regression. Discussion of Results & The results showed that There is a positive and significant relationship between social responsibility (r =0.49), economic responsibility (r =0.57), legal responsibility (r =0.46), moral responsibility (r =0.50) and teamwork. Also, economic responsibility (β = 0.13) and legal responsibility (β = 0.53) are significant predictors of the variance of teamwork. In conclusion, we can say that social responsibility in its several dimensions such as legal responsibility, economic responsibility, and moral responsibility can enhance teamwork among employees. Therefore, it is suggested that specific attention will be paid to these dimensions of social responsibility in order to create and enhance teamwork among employees of any organization.

Views and attitudes of religious leaders is an important components of any religion as an institution, because they are usually considered to be religious in the view of most religious people. In this study, by the term religion we mean views and attitudes of the religious leaders. Based on the common theory of religious changes, any religion changes in accordance with unsteady socio-cultural conditions of the very society in which it lives so it becomes more compatible with its new environment. The first half of the 20th century is an important historical period for Shia Islam in Iran. An appropriate approach for investigating this issue is comparative-historical analysis, and two democratic transitions in this period, namely, the Constitutional Movement, and the Nationalist Movement in the second cabinet of Mussaddiq, seem to be appropriate for the comparison itself. Why did the Shia's religious leaders act quit differently in the Constitutional Movement (1906) than in the National Movement (1952)? The dominant process during both periods was a governmental modernization (or defensive modernization). Why were they apparently in agreement with modernization process in the Constitutional Movement, and in disagreement in the National Movement? Did their attitudes get changed during the National Movement and does their opposition to Musaddiq's reforms (the general trend of modernization) contradict the common theory of religious change? Initially, we designed a theoretical model by using theoretical ideas related to explanation of change in religion. Theoretical studies in the areas of cultural change (secularization theories regarding modernity and religion), provide a useful theoretical framework from which such a model can be extracted. Then, we applied this model to two historical events in Shia's history: (1) from the absence of Imam Zaman to the Constitutional Movement (1906), and (2) from the Constitutional Movement to The National Movement (1952). This method (parallel demonstration of theory) is an academic approach in historical sociology. We also applied narrative analysis to study appropriate contexts and conditions of the change. For studying socio-political changes of religion, we considered concepts, approaches, government theories and their changes from the view of religious leaders from the absence of Imam Zaman to the Constitutional Movement (1906), as well as political attitudes of religious leaders from the Constitutional Movement (1906) to The National Movement (1952). We represent two answers to the above questions one from the perspective of historians and the other from our own perspective, which is sociological.Discussion of Results & The results of the study show that religious leaders were influenced by macro transition contexts, and they created relatively stable and unstable changes in religion. Their appropriate and inappropriate positions to the transition process and their effective functioning in transition process are causally important to the transition. Our research indicates that the changes of religion (namely, views and attitudes of religious leaders) may be of a different kind, according to different factors influencing the tension between religion and its social environment, irrespective of how steady the general course of socio-cultural changes of society are. We believe that our theoretical model is capable of explaining the political stand of Shia in the National Movement as well.

The family is a vital and initial basic social institution that is essential for both personal and public health. Individuals are affected by the families not only biologically and physically but also in terms of emotional, psychological and personality needs. In sociological and demographic terms, the legal, religious and customary dissolution of marriage is called divorce. In a specific meaning, divorce include dissolution of the relationship between husband and wife in a permanent marriage, followed by an absence of responsibility for couples in terms of rights and duties of marriage (Hoseini Beheshti, 1358-322). Divorce is a social problem that affects peoples’ lives severely. A look at the position of divorce in Iran shows that its rate has been upwardly increased in recent years. And this alone shows that divorce is an important problem. According to official statistics published by the Registry Office in 1380, 60559 cases of divorce have been registered. This number has increased to 98756 in 1385 and to 125747 in 1388. Kohgiloyeh and BoyerAhmad province has a high rate of divorce. In the city of Yasouj, for example, 1537 cases of marriage were registered in the year 1388, while 136 cases of divorce occurred. In other words, from each 11 marriages, one divorce occurred. But this statistics become worse in 1389 so that out of each 7 marriages one divorce occurred. One theory is that modern social changes instead of protecting the family, has lead to its collapse. This has a deep influence on health of the divorced or divorcing couples, their children and the health of society at large. So study and research about divorce from different dimensions seems to be essential. Accordingly, the purpose of this study is to investigate social factors that are influencing tendency to divorce in Yasouj city. The theoretical framework used in this study is a composition of exchange theory, social relationships within community, spouse similarity theory and theory of Randall Collins for explaining the tendency towards divorce. Based on the above theories, we developed 9 hypotheses including: 1-there is a significant relationship between educational difference of spouses and their tendency towards divorce. 2- There is a significant relationship between age differences and tendency towards divorce. 3- There is a significant relationship between levels of interaction with kinship groups and tendency towards divorce. 4- There is a significant relationship between sexual and emotional satisfaction with partner and tendency towards divorce. 5- There is a significant relationship between understanding the partner before marriage and tendency towards divorce. 6- There is a significant relationship between sense of loyalty and tendency towards divorce. 7- There is a significant relationship between level of emotional energy and tendency towards divorce. 8- There is a significant relationship between the main criteria for choosing a spouse at the time of marriage and tendency towards divorce. 9- There is a significant relationship between class difference and tendency towards divorce. The method of research is survey and research population include families of Yasouj city in 1390. Sample size included 384 individuals who were selected by using Cochran formula. Sampling method was multi-stage clustering method. A research-made questionnaire was used for data collection, whose face validity was confirmed and whose reliability was guaranteed by using Cronbach alpha coefficient.Discussion of Results & According to the findings of this research, %54.7 of respondents had little tendency, %23.7 had medium tendency and %21/6 had strong tendency towards divorce. 8 hypotheses out of all research hypotheses were accepted and only one was rejected, that is, the relationship between spouse age differences and tendency towards divorce. The results of correlation coefficient tests show that there is a significant relationship between educational difference and tendency towards divorce. Also, communication with relatives and tendency towards divorce are in a reverse and significant correlation with each other. The fourth hypnosis was sexual and emotional satisfaction from wife and its relationship with tendency towards divorce. This correlation coefficient was significantly confirmed, showing that there is reverse relationship between the two variables. Results obtained from Pearson correlation test between understanding of spouses before marriage from each other and their tendency towards divorce is significant in a reverse direction. Also correlation coefficient test between loyalty to spouse and tendency towards divorce is significant and at a negative direction. There is also a significant and reverse relationship between the level of emotional energy and tendency towards divorce. Class differences of the families and tendency towards divorce is also in a significant relationship. According to the theories that were considered in this research, it can be concluded that exchange theory, with an emphasis on attractiveness as a principle, suggests that correspondence of opponent with criterion is important for mate selection. Also, violation from rules and norms of marital relationship can lead to divorce.

Marriage is an old religious and human tradition, which has been publicized by religions and the law, historically. It is a contract by which man and woman share a life and form a family. Research on matrimony in Western societies show more tolerance and liberal attitudes towards marriage's values and process, like informal matrimonial life, sexual relations before marriage, and divorce in other words, the traditional roles of ‘breadwinner man’ and ‘homemaker woman’ has changed. Because of modernization processes, these changed values have influenced developing countries as well and by changing matrimonial values, views on love, marriage culture, lifestyle and everyday life, taste of people, may bring some cultural problems and challenges to society. Sanandaj, the largest city in Kurdistan of Iran, is an exemplar society for research on this subject. The culture of Sanandaj is affected by two hegemonic cultures simultaneously: the Western and the domestic culture. The main question of this study revolves around exploring the rate of changes in marriage culture in Sanandaj, especially in rural communities, in the face of globalizing effects of Western culture. For studying this problem, we have considered the attitudes of rural students regarding commitment to traditional culture of marriage. We examined the relationship between such variables as gender, level of education, geographical location, watching satellite TV, and the level of religiosity, with commitment to marriage traditions. In total, approaches that try to explain changes of marriage culture are dividable in two groups: A) Structural approaches, for example, ‘modernization theory', that emphasizes the role of structural change in society's evolution. B) Cultural approaches, for example, ‘development idealism theory’, that emphasizes the role of cultural and values changes, like individualism, and secularism. Ronald Inglehart, elaborated his theory in the frame of cultural approach. His theory, which is based on the result of a four-stag study on global values in 85 societies, tries to explain value and cultural changes. Inglehart believes that culture adapt itself with its environment. In other word, culture response to political, economic and technological changes, in the long term. According to this theory, two factors of environment and individual characteristics play an important role in commitment to values and attitudes. This study uses survey method and for collecting its data uses a researcher-made questionnaire. Research population includes all Sanandaj students, whose number is estimated to be 27636 individuals, of whom 378 respondents were selected using Cochran formula. Discussion of Results & The results of the study show that attitudes of rural students are different from urban students. The first are more committed to traditional culture. The same is true when it comes to religious commitment rural women and men tend to be more committed to marriage in contrast with urban women and men Education has no significant effect on attitude towards marriage in this study watching satellite TV makes a difference between urban and rural environments. This variable has a positive and significant relationship on attitudes of rural students about matrimony. In sum, we can say that there is distinction between rural and urban students from the viewpoint of attitudes towards marriage culture rural students are more committed to matrimonial ceremonies and traditions. With regard to these results, policymakers should pay attention to dissimilarities of attitudes between rural and urban people.

The University's mission, in addition to teaching, conducting research and giving service to the academic community, is to help improve the all-round develop‌ment of students (Astin, 1993). Collecting information on students’ academic satisfaction, which is mentioned to be as an outcome (Austin, 1993 b Sanders and Chan, 1996) or a designed tool for improving the quality of student's expe‌riences (Aldridge and Rowley, 1998) is one of the proceedings that assist the universities to perform this mission well. Providing Student's satisfaction as the most important stakeholders of the university is subject to providing an appropriate context, including an extensive network of positive relationships and partnerships between educational stakeholders. This can be called social capital. Social capital is a set of existing norms, networks and social trust at the university system, which leads to the satisfaction of students with different aspects of education by facilitating cooperation between departments and reducing transaction costs. However, realization of students’ expectations and development of social capital within the organization, particularly universities, are influenced by a number of factors, among which organizational hindering and enabling structures are the most important ones. If the organizational structure is hindering, not only will it destroy the social capital, but it result in distrust among members toward one another and reduction of their satisfaction as well. Thus, the concept of organizational structure and social capital and the presence of a kind of co- finalization between the two variables, a climate coupled with trust, cooperation, sincerity, and responsibility all provide a proper context in order to obtain the academic satisfaction of students. In this study, we attempted to investigate the relationship between these three variables in terms of a structural equation model. The following assumptions were thus made: 1) There is a significant relationship between the type of organizational structure and students’ academic satisfaction. 2) There is a significant relationship between departments’ social capital and students’ academic satisfaction. 3) There is a significant relationship between the type of organizational structure and departments’ social capital with the academic satisfaction of students. The research method in this study was relational- descriptive. The population of the study consisted of the entire academic departments of Shiraz University, of which 5 groups were selected randomly. Faculty members (50 participants) and senior undergraduate students (167 participants) answered to our questionnaires, which were divided into three groups: university’s types of organizational structure questionnaire (Torkzadeh & Mohtaram, 2012), the departments’ social capital questionnaire (Torkzadeh & Mohtaram, 2013) and students’ academic satisfaction scale (Torkzadeh, 2007). In order to assess the validity and reliability of each dimension of the questionnaires, item analysis and Cronbach's Alpha were used and the results showed their high reliability and validity. The multiple regression method was used to evaluate the research hypotheses, using LISREL software. Discussion of Results & Through the investigation of the relationship between university’s types of organizational structure with students’ academic satisfaction, it was concluded that organizational structure type is a significant predictor of student's satisfaction. According to this finding, an enabling structure has a positive and significant relationship with students’ academic satisfaction (01/0≥ P و 42/0 = β).. The results of this study are in line with the findings of Shorts (1994 b), Kara (2004) and Kayzr and Saymsyk (2005), emphasizing that there is a significant and positive correlation between an enabling organizational structure and increase in student's level of academic satisfaction. If the structure of the university will be enabling due to its emphasis on flexible and dynamic rules and procedures, in addition to the promotion of confidence, motivation and loyalty of people (teachers) to the system (the university) will follow. It also helps create a favorable environment to increase students’ academic satisfaction (Michael et al, 1988) and reduce the sense of alienation in the educational environment (Jackson and Skooler, 1985). Moreover, at this stage of the analysis, the results showed that hindering organizational structure was also negatively correlated with students’ academic satisfaction. This result was consistent with the results of Hoy and Suitland (2001) and Hoy and Miskle’s (2008) investigations that there is a negative relationship between organizational hindering structures and students’ academic satisfaction. Possible explanations for such results include: hindering organizational features such as rigid and unchanging laws, punishing mistakes, the presence of an atmosphere of mistrust, etc. Considering the relationship between social capital of departments and students’ academic satisfaction, the obtained results indicate that social capital of departments is a significant and negative predictor of students’ academic satisfaction. There is a negative significant relationship between social capital of departments with students’ academic satisfaction. The result of this part of research was inconsistent with Coleman’s (1990 b) that there is a positive relationship between increasing levels of social capital in educational environments and enhancing learner's academic achievement. This finding means that the social capital of the departments of this research territory have internal positive and external negative functions. In this regard, we can say that professors have a homogeneous group membership in social networks and strongly support each other, although it is possible for them to have the benefits and positive effects, it will cause negative consequences and costs for people outside the network including students. During the study of concurrent relationship among the type of university’s structure and students’ academic satisfaction with the social capital of departments, it was concluded that the structure of the university and departments’ social capital are simultaneously significant predictors of student's academic satisfaction. Thus, there is a positive relationship between enabling organizational structure and student's academic satisfaction and there is a negative and significant relationship between hindering organizational structure and departments’ social capital, with student's academic satisfaction. Finally we can say that, although in this study it was concluded that organizational structure varieties and social capital alone have significant predictive power for students’ academic satisfaction, reduction of the predictive power of organizational structure types and social capital coincide with one another, which is an evidence of the obvious impact of the organizational structure quality, especially the enabling organizational structure, on the nature and quality of departments’ social capital and vice versa. Hence, with regard to the serious responsibility of universities and university departments for achieving educational and research goals, it is worthwhile that managers and educational practitioners change the conditions and atmosphere of the university in such a way that it could be as a ground to promote students’ academic satisfaction.