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هنرهای زیبا - هنرهای نمایشی و موسیقی - پیاپی 54 (پاییز و زمستان 1395)

نشریه هنرهای زیبا - هنرهای نمایشی و موسیقی
پیاپی 54 (پاییز و زمستان 1395)

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1395/10/04
  • تعداد عناوین: 8
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  • سجاد ستوده*، میلاد ستوده، احمد الستی، محمدجعفر یوسفیان صفحات 5-14
    قاب بندی یکی از مباحثی است که در زیبایی شناسی تصویر دارای اهمیت فراوانی می باشد. اما علی رغم اهمیت این مبحث، تا کنون کمتر پژوهشی را درباره سینمای ایران می توان مشاهده نمود که به قاب بندی و جنبه های آن پرداخته باشد. این مقاله تلاش دارد تا با رویکردی توصیفی- تحلیلی، به زیبایی شناسی قاب بندی و ظرفیت های تصویرسازی آن بپردازد. از همین روی در گام اول، هشت فیلم از سینمای ایران در دهه 80 به عنوان جامعه آماری گزینش شده است: سگ کشی(بهرام بیضایی،1380)؛ شب های روشن(فرزادموتمن، 1381)؛ گاوخونی (بهروزافخمی، 1382)؛ آتش سبز (محمدرضا اصلانی، 1386)؛ شبانه روز (امید بنکدار و کیوان علی محمدی،1387)؛ درباره الی(اصغر فرهادی،1387)؛ پرسه در مه (بهرام توکلی، 1388) و جدایی نادر از سیمین (اصغر فرهادی، 1389). در ابتدا برای رسیدن به نتیجه ای آشکار، چندین نظریه برگرفته از آرای متفکران متفاوت به عنوان چارچوب نظری مورد استفاده قرار می گیرد تا با تحلیل این نظرگاه ها در آثار سینمایی گزینش شده، ماهیت کاربردی این مقاله افزایش یابد. در آغاز پژوهش، ماهیت قاب بندی و روند توسعه آن بررسی می شود. سپس به تصاویر درون قاب اشاره می شود. در ادامه تصاویری واکاوی می شوند که خارج از محدوده های بسته قاب حضور دارند و علی رغم پنهان بودن، فهمیده می شوند. در انتها به شیوه ای منحصربفرد و کمیاب در قاب بندی اشاره می شود و ویژگی های آن مورد تحلیل قرار می گیرد.
    کلیدواژگان: قاب بندی، قاب زدایی، سینمای ایران، خارج از قاب، زیبایی شناسی تصویر
  • محمدباقر قهرمانی، بهروز محمودی بختیاری، پرستو محبی* صفحات 15-24
    مفهوم دایجسیس (نقل) نخستین بار توسط افلاطون در مقابل میمسیس (تقلید) مطرح شد. سپس ارسطو اصطلاح میمسیس را به حوزه درام وارد کرد و به توصیف آن در مقابل هنرهای اپیک (روایی) پرداخت. در دوران معاصر، مبحث دایجسیس و میمسیس در حوزه روایت شناسی بار دیگر موردتوجه قرار گرفت و به واژگانی کلیدی برای تمایز میان روایت کلامی و درام بدل شد. در نمایش سنتی ایران اما، دایجسیس و میمسیس کاملا درهم تنیده شده است. در این مقاله، با استفاده از مستندات تاریخی، به روش توصیفی- تحلیلی، روند شکل گیری نمایش بومی از سنت های داستان گویی در ایران مورد بررسی قرار می گیرد تا از این راه روند انتقال راهکارهای نقلی به زبان نمایشی و پیوند دایجسیس و میمسیس در درام ایران دنبال شود. برای این منظور، نحوه ارائه عناصری چون شخصیت، دیالوگ، مکان و زمان در نقالی و تعزیه مورد بررسی قرار می گیرد تا نشان داده شود چگونه ارائه داستانی این عناصر، امکان ظهور دایجسیس در درام را ممکن می کند. در پایان، مبحث دایجسیس و میمسیس در روایت شناسی مورد بازنگری قرار می گیرد تا برخلاف ادعای روایت شناسان اولیه، ثابت شود این دو اصطلاح نه تعاریفی برای جدا کردن درام از روایت، بلکه ویژگی هایی در درون هر دو می تواند باشد.
    کلیدواژگان: دایجسیس، میمسیس، روایت شناسی، نمایش ایرانی، نقالی، تعزیه
  • فرزانه قبادی*، محمدرضا حسنایی صفحات 25-32
    در این مقاله، متامورف فراتر از یک تکنیک انیمیشن، و به عنوان شیوه ای بیانی که ساختار استعاری دارد، مورد مطالعه قرار می گیرد. منظور از ساختار استعاری، ساختاری دو بخشی است که در آن دو شکلی که قرار است به هم تبدیل شوند، دارای شباهت های ظاهری و یا مفهومی با یکدیگرند. این شباهت، عامل جانشینی و معناسازی است. همچنین این تکنیک را می توان قابل مقایسه با شعر و رویا که مصادیق تخیل شاعرانه اند، دانست. هدف اصلی این پژوهش، تعیین شباهت های ساختاری میان تکنیک متامورف و تخیل شعرگونه است. درک شیوه بیانی متامورف، با توصیف انواع مورف در نمونه های انیمیشنی و مطالعه تطبیقی ساختار آنها با ساختار انواع شیوه های بیان در نظریات رومن یاکوبسن در زبان شناسی امکان پذیر می باشد. برای شناسایی ساختار تخیل شعرگونه، از نظریات زیگموند فروید در تحلیل رویا استفاده شده است. طی این پژوهش درخواهیم یافت که تکنیک متامورف، بستر مناسبی را جهت به تصویر کشیدن تخیل شاعرانه در اختیار فیلمساز انیمیشن قرار می دهد، که با استفاده از قواعدی که در مقاله مشخص شده است، می تواند مسائل خیال انگیز و رویاگونه را به کمک آنها به تصویر کشد.
    کلیدواژگان: بیان، متامورف، تخیل شاعرانه، انیمیشن، رویا، شعر
  • سپیده باقری لویه*، ناهید احمدیان صفحات 33-40
    ادبیات بومی، یکی از اشکال ادبیات است که به پژواک تاثیرات اقلیمی در شیوه، اصول، اعتقادات و به طور کلی سبک زندگی ساکنان آن اقلیم می پردازد. مقاله حاضر، ویژگی های اقلیمی دو نمایش نامه مرگ در پاییز اثر اکبر رادی و فن نوشته کاریل چرچیل را، به شیوه تطبیقی-تحلیلی مورد بررسی قرار داده است. مرگ در پاییز، روایتگر زندگی خانواده ای در یکی از روستاهای گیلان است و فن احوال شماری از اهالی یک منطقه را در سرزمین های شرقی انگلستان به تصویر می کشد. در این مقاله، ویژگی های بومی دو نمایش نامه در پنج بخش اوضاع جغرافیایی، وضعیت زراعی و معیشتی، گویش محلی، مناسبات اقتصادی و ویژگی های جغرافیای انسانی، مورد کاوش قرار می گیرند. ره آورد این مطالعه دو دستاورد است: نخست آنکه نشان می دهد در هر دو اثر، نوع اقلیم، تعیین کننده بسیاری از ویژگی های انسان شناسانه و قومی است. و دوم آنکه برغم تفاوت های فرهنگی و جامعه شناختی در میان اقوام و ملیت های مختلف، و نیز با وجود سبک پرداخت متفاوت نویسندگان و رویکرد آنها به مسائل بومی، این آثار در مولفه های بنیادین خود، مشترکات چشمگیری دارند که می تواند در نگاهی کلی تر به درک بهتر و ژرف تری از فرهنگ های مختلف بیانجامد.
    کلیدواژگان: اکبر رادی، کاریل چرچیل، مرگ در پاییز، فن، گیلان، شرق انگلستان
  • فرهاد سلیمان نژاد* صفحات 41-52
    این مقاله تفسیری است تاریخی بر سه گانه اورستیا اثر آیسخولوس، که بر آن است تا ایده سیاسی این سه گانه را با استمداد از روش مطابقت تاریخی اثر و تاریخ سیاسی یونان باستان تبیین کند. دستمایه این مقاله برای تحقق این هدف، تبیین موضع گیری اورستیا در برابر انحلال آریوپاگوس است. آریوپاگوس، نهادی قضایی بود که بر حسن اجرای قوانین در آتن نظارت داشت و در پی سال ها مجادلات سیاسی الیگارشی و دموکراسی آتن، در 460 ق.م توسط دموکرات ها منحل شد. دلیل این اقدام این بود که این نهاد طی سالیان متمادی، از کارکرد نظارتی و دموکراتیک خود تهی شده و به اهرم اعمال فشار اشراف علیه مردم مبدل شده بود. هدف این مقاله، تبیین موضع سیاسی آیسخولوس در برابر مجادلات سیاسی دموکراسی و الیگارشی آتن است. بنابه یافته های مقاله، آیسخولوس نه از دموکراسی افراطی جانبداری می کند و نه از الیگارشی ستیزه جو. بلکه وی خواستار استقرار شکلی از حکومت است که می توان آن را «حاکمیت قانون» نامید. فی الواقع آیسخولوس وفادار به قسمی عقلانیت و اعتدال سیاسی در برابر دو قسم از افراط سیاسی است. قسم نخست این افراط، پافشاری بر سنت و خون خواهی است؛ و قسم دوم آن انحلال انقلابی نهادی قانونی است که فلسفه وجودی اش حاکمیت عقلانیت در عرصه سیاسی است.
    کلیدواژگان: آیسخولوس، اورستیا، آریوپاگوس، اعتدال سیاسی، تدبیر عقلانی
  • آذین موحد *، زهرا کشاورز صفحات 53-62
    سبک نوازندگی فلوت در دوران معاصر که معیارها و استانداردهای جهانشمولی را دربرمی گیرد، تحت نفوذ مکتب فرانسه توسعه یافته و کنسرواتوار پاریس در پایه ریزی رویکردهای پداگوژیک در نوازندگی این ساز، نقش کلیدی داشته است. علی رغم تعداد زیاد کتب و تمرینات به جای مانده از معلمان این موسسه، هیچیک از آنها دستورالعملی مربوط به تکنیک صداسازی و سونوریته مطرح نکرده اند و هر آنچه باقی مانده است، موارد مربوط به مهارت های مکانیزم و آرتیکولاسیون است. امروزه در جوامعی که موسیقی کلاسیک از ارکان فرهنگ بومی آنها نیست، عدم آشنایی با مفاهیم سونوریته و صداسازی، آموزش و اجرای این سازها را با نقصان روبرو کرده است. این تحقیق با استفاده از منابع کتابخانه ای و مبتنی بر تجربیات شخصی، با معرفی معیارهایی برای کیفیت صوت، آن طور که مدنظر معلمان مکتب کنسرواتوار پاریس بوده است، تمرین های بنیادی و دستورالعمل های مناسبی را برای دستیابی به سونوریته صحیح معرفی می کند. در این بررسی، سه عنصر مهم یعنی هوموژنئیته، اگالیته، و سوپلس که از نوشته ها و گفته های معلمان فرانسوی استخراج شده، به عنوان شالوده صداسازی در مکتب نوازندگی فلوت فرانسه معرفی می شوند و با تمرین های ارایه شده، راهکارهایی برای دستیابی به کوک پایدار، تمبر، رنگ آمیزی و تلفیق صدا معرفی می کند.
    کلیدواژگان: فلوت، سونوریته، پداگوژی، کنسرواتوار پاریس، سازهای بادی
  • سید حسین میثمی* صفحات 63-68
    در این مقاله به موسیقی دوره غزنوی پرداخته می شود. هدف از این تحقیق، کشف تحولات تاریخی موسیقی یکی از سلسله های ترک تبار دوران میانی تاریخ ایران است. روش تحقیق، توصیفی و تحلیلی است که علاوه بر تشریح وقایع، تلاش شده چرایی و چگونگی تحولات موسیقی مورد تحلیل قرار گیرد. در این مقاله، دو جنبه اجتماعی و تخصصی موسیقی، اساس ساختار مقاله را تشکیل می دهد. بر اساس شواهد می توان احتمال داد که در این دوره، سازمان منسجمی در دربار برای موسیقی وجود داشته است؛ دست اندرکاران این تشکیلات، مسئولیت مشخصی را برعهده داشته اند. ورود لوریان/ لولیان اسیر از هند و سند به قلمرو غزنوی، آغازی برای پراکندکی و مهاجرت تدریجی آنان به خارج از ایران شد. در زمینه تالیف مباحث نظری، تلاش هایی صورت گرفته که تا حدودی جنبه های مبهم نظام موسیقایی این دوره را بازتاب می دهد. با مقایسه مباحث نظری رساله موسیقی نیشابوری با رساله ادوار صفی الدین (موسس مکتب منتظمیه)، می توان به شباهت ها و تفاوت هایی در عرصه نظری - عملی شرق و غرب تمدن اسلامی پی برد. این شباهت ها و تفاوت ها عمدتا به نظام پردگی و ریتمیک برمی گردد.
    کلیدواژگان: موسیقی غزنوی، دربار و موسیقی، اهل موسیقی، لوریان، لولیان، نظام موسیقایی
  • ساسان فاطمی* صفحات 69-76
    غزل‏خوانی، که در محافل رسمی بیشتر با نام «کوچه‏باغی» یا با نام خودساخته «بیات تهران» شناخته شده است، نوعی آواز با وزن آزاد بر روی اشعار شعرای فرهنگ شفاهی، و گاه شعرای کلاسیک است که به‏ویژه در تهران و شهر ری خوانده می‏شود. جایگاه این آواز در فرهنگ موسیقایی رسمی به طور وسیعی متاثر از جایگاه اجراکنندگان آن در جامعه است که غالبا به قشری که به نام های مختلف، مثل داش، داش مشدی، گردن کلفت، جاهل و غیره خوانده شده، تعلق دارند. این قشر فرهنگی‏ اجتماعی، همواره نماینده ی دو خصلت متضاد بوده و با نوسان میان جوانمردی و اوباشی گری، گاه احترام و گاه انزجار افراد جامعه و تقریبا همواره، سوءظن و بی اعتمادی آنها را برانگیخته است. غزل‏خوانی، درواقع مانند چهارپاره‏خوانی با وزن آزاد در مناطق مختلف ایران، نوعی شعرخوانی ملحون است که، به‏علت پیوندش با سنت شاعری در فرهنگ ایرانی، نمادی از فرهیختگی در دل فرهنگ عامیانه یا مردمی به حساب می‏آید و به این ترتیب، حداقل برای گردن‏کلفت‏های خوش‏نام و جوانمردی که از این هنر بهره‏مندند، مایه تشخص و تمایز اجتماعی است. این نوع آواز، از یک فرم ترکیبی معین تبعیت می‏کند و از نظر نظام موسیقایی، وابسته به نظام موسیقی کلاسیک ایرانی است، اما از پیچیدگی های فنی آواز کلاسیک بهره نمی‏برد.
    کلیدواژگان: غزل، چهارپاره، داش مشدی، کوچه باغی، بیات تهران
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  • Sajad Sotoudeh*, Milad Sotoudeh, Ahmad Alasti, Mohammad Jafar Yousefian Pages 5-14
    Framing is a very important subject in picture aestheticism. This contains a capacity which might be investigated through different approaches, and the film-makers have used this method to improve the visual aesthetics of their works. But, despite the importance of this subject, rare studies could be found along with their works based on the framing and its different dimensions inside Iranian cinema. This article is trying to investigate the framing aesthetics and its visual capacities through a descriptive-analytic approach. Therefore, at the first step, eight movies amongst the works produced from 2001 to 2011 in Iran, have been chosen as the statistical domain of the research: Killing Mad Dogs (Bahram Beizai, 2001); Bright Nights (Farzad Motamen, 2001); Gavkhooni (The River’s End) (Behrooz Afkhami, 2003); Green Fire (Mohammad Reza Aslani, 2007); Day and Night (Omid Bonakdar & Keyvan Ali-mohammadi, 2008); About Elly (Asghar Farhadi, 2008); A Walk in the fog (Bahram Tavakoli, 2009); A Seperation (Asghar Farhadi, 2010). In the beginning of the research, the concept of framing and its developing process are stated so that the artist’s approach towards framing becomes clear. In regard to this, we continue to discuss the painter’s approach towards the frames and then we’ll talk about the dominant approach throughout the renaissances. In this section, a transformation in the attitude towards frame edges is shown in the various works of the painters who shift their focus from the center of images to their edges. Then, on-screen pictures are referred to. That is, the analysis based on the pictures which are formed inside the frame edges and some scenes of the chosen movies are stated so that the discussion becomes clear. Deleuze’s ideas about the saturated and rarefaction images have been discussed. Then, several instances from the selected case studies are stated that explain how Iranian filmmakers make use of these ideas in their works. Next, those scenes are studied, although they are outside the limitations of the frame edges, they possess a strong impacting effect. In other words, the aim in this section is to focus on pictures which have gone further than the limitations specified by the frame. The theoretical focus of this part is based on Noel Burch’s thoughts on the off-screen space. We try to increase the practical aspects of the discussion by including several instances of the selected movies. In the end, a rare and unique approach in framing is introduced and its characters are analyzed so that the innovative approaches in Iranian Cinema towards framing are revealed. Then, the concept of deframing is investigated by focusing on Pascal Bonitzer’s theory. This is followed by a search within movies to point out the moments where Iranian filmmakers manage to alter the conventional viewpoint and move toward deframing. Therefore, we notice a great preference in the works of the 80’s like Killing Mad Dogs, About Elly, and A Seperation to configure their images within the frame edges. Whilst, Bright Nights and Gavkhooni (The River’s End) have reached further and made an effort to alter the conventional and routine meaning of framing.
    Keywords: Framing, Deframing, Iranian Cinema, Off, Screen Space, Visual Aesthetics
  • Mohammad Bagher Ghahramani, Behrooz Mahmoodi Bakhtiari, Parastoo Mohebbi * Pages 15-24
    The concept of Diegesis (telling or recounting a story) originally appeared in Plato's thesis as opposed to Mimesis (showing or enacting a story). Plato described Diegesis as the third person style of expressing a fiction mediated by an author/narrator, whereas he proposed Mimesis as the first person style of presenting a story by means of characters and actions. Aristotle then applied Mimesis for the craft of writing plays and developed the notion to study dramatic and epic arts. In the current era, the notion of Diegesis and Mimesis has been reconsidered in the field of Narratology, and developed as the key elements for making difference between verbal narratives and drama, arguing that the sequence of events is generally mediated through a given narrator in a fiction, while it is presented in a play by an actor. Using historical documents and applying an analytical-descriptive method, the development of Iranian indigenous performance from traditional styles of story-telling would be discussed in this paper. By this way, the process of transferring narrative strategies into dramatic language and the connections between “Diegesis and Mimesis in Iranian plays will be traced. In the origins of Iranian performance, however, Diegesis and Mimesis, regardless of today's disagreements, are intertwined as such that the Rhapsodist (Naghal) functions as a narrator-actor who recounts the event from a third person view, at the same time that he attempts to perform his dramatic role from a first person view. In Taziyeh, which many historians argue that it is inspired by Rhapsody (Naghali) and might be taken as the oldest type of traditional performance in Iran, performative elements are in alignment with narrative elements in such a way that they would be no longer accounted for an absolute narration, or an absolute imitation. The main features of Diegesis in Taziyeh and Naghali could be explained in the style of developing dramatic elements such as character, dialogue, time and place. Although character has bodily and lively presence in Taziyeh, it is needed more to narrate the role than to represent it. The world of Taziyeh is often more composed of verbal elements rather performative or dramatic ones; Instead of being represented, the place is simply described. The time, like a narrative fiction, is also encompassed a wide range of temporality. With the respect to rich tradition of storytelling in Iranian history, Taziyeh gradually could turn the style of narrating a story from a literary form into a dramatic one. Narrative techniques such as the play within the play, asides, parabasis, metalepsis, direct audience address, verbal summaries of offstage action, embedded narratives and metanarrative comments had fortune to enter into Taziyeh and being steadily combined with its mimetic language. In conclusion, the subject of “Diegesis and Mimesis” in narratology will be reconsidered to prove that both terms are not simply descriptions for separating drama from narrative, but in fact, those are the unique natural features of both of them.
    Keywords: Diegesis, Mimesis, Narratology, Iranian Drama, Naghali, Tziyeh
  • Farzane Ghobadi *, Mohammad Reza Hosnaee Pages 25-32
    In this essay, the Metamorphosis technique in animation is treated as a metaphoric structure, using visual or conceptual similarities between two shapes to express poetic imagination. This structure makes metamorphosis technique comparable with poem and dreams. This project has been carried out using the data available in books, articles and other published documents and movies. The data has been analyzed using comparative approach. The main purposes of this essay are determining the structural similarities between Metamorphosis Technique and poetic imagination. First, the primary data Will be elaborated its manifestations in different animations; second, the data will be analyzed through a comparative study of different approaches of expression based on Roman Jacobson’s theories in linguistics, and also by a comparative study of Sigmund Freud’s theories on interpretation of dreams. There is a pattern inferred from Jacobson’s theory that massage is communicated between sender and receiver, so metamorphosis as the core of animation has a narrative ability for carrying the massage. Metamorphosis is an ability to change picture to another picture without editing, So this technique is inspiring for animation techniques which editing is done under camera like painting on glass .Metamorphosis has two outputs, Firstly by transforming two different scenes like a transition (dissolve), and secondly metamorphosis of one character to another like fable stories that a hero usually change to something else by an spell. If morphing hasn’t just a decorative purpose, the expression might exit, Base on Jacobson’s theory in linguistic there are two kinds of expressive relationships: Paradigmatic relationships and syntagmatic relationships. These relations are important because our understanding of the world and our interaction in it are governed largely by relationships; metaphor is similar to paradigmatic relations and allegory is similar to syntagmatic relation, in metaphoric way two different objects replace with each other but in allegory part of object replace to the whole object. The metamorphosis , more than a mere technique, is a way for expression; true metamorphosis has two parts that morph to each other ,thus the relationship between them could result in one of two main way of linguistic expression. There is a similarity between two parts ,in metaphoric metamorphosis, When metaphoric relationship happens the spectators mind is looking for the meaning and the reason of changes, So start analyzing and dreaming about meaning .This poetic way of expression that exist in metamorphosis made it suitable for representing dreams. Dream is a road to unconscious part of mind and also a special feature that everybody experiences it. Thus, it is important to understand its structure. Based on Freud approach, latent content of dream infer the manifest content; that can be interpreted as some information that the conscious individual remembers experiencing. Dream work is changing these materials by condensation and displacement. Other similarities among metamorphosis and dream and poem consist of symbol and similarity and being visual; and paradox is acceptable. A pattern for finding ideas for making animations by using the Metamorphosis Technique could be possible by metaphoric approach
    Keywords: Dream, Imagination, Expression, Metamorphosis, Animation
  • Sepideh Bagheri Looyeh *, Nahid Ahmadian Pages 33-40
    Regional literature, as one of the literary genres, strives to depict the geographical and climatic features of a particular region in the manners, principles, attitudes, beliefs, and the language of their inhabitants. The present article, attempts to offer a parallel analysis of these features in two works of Mage dar Paeez (Death in Autumn) by Akbar Radi and Fen by Caryl Churchill. Born in Rasht, north of Iran, Akbar Radi shows great concern to portray the everyday life of the people of his homeland. Almost all of his plays have Gilan as their setting and are full of references to the distinctive lifestyle and beliefs of the region’s inhabitants, among which Mage dar Paeez (Death in Autumn) could be considered a remarkable example. Caryl Churchill, however, is not a dramatist with regional concerns. She is known to be a writer with feminist and leftist tendencies who mostly depicts the lives of lower class women. Nevertheless, local color can be traced in some of her works, notably Fen. In both plays of Marg dar Paeez and Fen, regional features, play determining role in the overall lives of the characters and their enactments. The article tries to offer a parallel reading of the regional elements with recourse to the five following categories: geographical condition, agricultural and habitual features, dialects, economic relations and finally, attitudes and manners of live. The study begins by offering a background of regional literature both in Iran and western world, and respectively, casts a look at regional dramas and by referring to Radi and Churchill, attempts to offer a background to their works and the influence of regional perspectives in their dramatic productions. Marg dar Paeez sketches out the life of a peasant family in one of the rural areas of Gilan, north of Iran. Fen, on the other hand, is the manifestation of the lives of local inhabitants of east England. The five elements mentioned above, offered by Abdol Ali Dastgheib in his article, "On Regional Literature", are among the general theorizations done sketching out the features of regional literature. The features under question are then studied in a parallel comparison between the two works. In each case several examples are offered to show the traces of that regional element in the work. The comparison as such, not only highlights the regional features of each play individually, but also indicates the similarities and differences of the aforementioned criteria in the two selected plays. Meanwhile, the article also traces the cultural and social elements resulting from as much as leading to the environmental give- and- takes which are inevitable outcomes of such cohabitations. The study as such aims to come up with two
    Conclusions
    first that in both dramas the climate plays a determining role in the anthropological as well as ethical habits of local communities and secondly, despite cultural and sociological differences along with the various approaches of the authors in dealing with subjects as such, these plays encapsulate significant elements in common which, in turn, could result into a better and deeper understanding of various cultures.
    Keywords: Akbar Radi, Caryl Churchill, Marg dar Paeez, Fen, Gilan, East of England
  • Farhad Soleimannejad * Pages 41-52
    The council of Areopagus as a judicial establishment monitored the proper implementation of rule of law in the polis (city-state) of Athens. While, the main responsibility and duty of Areopagus was to adjudicate the cases of the most serious crimes, it intervened in the political affairs as well. Eventually, after long-lasting political conflicts between Athenian oligarchy and democracy, this establishment lost its political power due to democrats’ struggles led by Ephialtes in 460 BC. The reason was that Areopagus had lost its supervisory and democratic functions during these years, and had turned into a political leverage in the hands of oligarchs against the crowd. Therefore, after dominating oligarchy, Athenian democracy did not hesitate to limit the power of Areopagus. Two years later, in the 458 BC, Aeschylus, who was a trenchant advocate of democracy, celebrated the reopening of Areopagus in the Oresteia trilogy. Although Aeschylus’ political idea is apparently in conflict with the demands of Athenian democracy, he is not considered to be a conservative oligarch. In the play, Pallas Athena, the goddess of wisdom in Greek mythology, is the founder of this judicial establishment, and counters the demands of Eumenides (Greek deities of vengeance), who represent tradition. On the other hand, Eumenides’ demands accord with tradition and administration of justice according to “blood for blood”; however, to Athena, such justice will result in chaos and disturbance. Athena demands that the administration of justice be allotted to a legal and democratic institution through establishing the council of Areopagus; whereas, the realization of justice according to tradition and the demands of Eumenides, in fact, indicate the deviation of justice to violence. That being so, Aeschylus’ political thought is the practice of rational contrivance and political temperance resisting two kinds of extremes. The first insists on implementing tradition and revenge, which is symbolized by Eumenides, and the second is the revolutionary confrontation with a legal establishment whose nature is based on the rule of law and rationality in the political arena. In fact, instead of revolutionary overthrow of Areopagus, Aeschylus more wishes to reform its hegemonic and non-democratic functions. The Rule of Law based on temperance and rational contrivance as against violence is Aeschylus’ firsthand political thought, which is represented by the establishment of Areopagus. Therefore, Aeschylus is a reformist politician not a revolutionary one. In this respect, Aeschylus as a reformist thinker of drama is a follower of Solon (Regulator and politician), who is considered among the most famous political philosophers of ancient Greece. Solon was the founder of Athenian democracy and the developer of the idea of moderation in politics. In other words, it was he who initiated the modern idea of Tolerance. Solon insisted on the will of man and morality for security, peace and elimination of violence to be gained. Undoubtedly, this idea is contradictory to the divine providence. Aeschylus also agrees with Solon in that both emphasize free will, morality, and rejection of determinism. All these innovative concepts are a rational contrivance to realize rationality in politics.
    Keywords: Aeschylus, Oresteia, Areopagus, Political Temperance, Rational Contrivance
  • Azin Movahed*, Zahra Keshavarz Pages 53-62
    The French School of Flute playing which was propagated through the leadership of the Paris Conservatoire in the 1890s has been considered as the foundation of flute performance and pedagogy in the modern world. Despite the prolific output of the teacher's of the Paris Conservatoire who widely wrote daily exercise books and studies for their students, a very limited number of these books concentrate on techniques of tone production and sonority and a wide majority consider only the development of dexterity and finger technique as their focus. While acknowledging the importance of finger technique in flute performance, it is common knowledge today, that a lack of consideration of issues related to sound and tonalization can hinder the development of the modern flutist. More importantly, in countries where the western classical tradition of sound is not directly embedded in the aural concepts of that culture, a lack of attention toward the importance of sound quality and tone color can become detrimental in achieving the expressive elements of musical performance. Using library references, as well as applied studies and empirical research, this study has reviewed the important role that Paul Taffanel and Marcel Moyse have played in propagating the aesthetics of sound in flute performance. While reviewing the principles discussed by the two teachers in their memoires as well as the introduction to their method books, the article has reviewed the social trends that led to the development of their thoughts and principles. As a result, particular exercises from different method books for the flute have been selected in order to present instructions and guidelines that enhance the pedagogy of tone and sound production based on the ideals propagated by the two teachers. The article has specifically addressed common terminology used by French teachers in their method books in order to postulate the significance of the words that have been used to describe the quality of sound as desired by the teachers of the Paris Conservatoire. As a result, the article has attributed three major characteristics to the French style of flute playing, namely "homogeneite, egalite, and souplesse", all three of which cover the concept of sound in an integrated multifaceted continuum. Homogeneite refers to the internal qualities of each tone affected by intonation and harmonics, egalite considers the uniformity of sound between notes and neighboring relationships and, souplesse considers the dynamic fluidity of sound in musical inflection. The article further presents suggestions that instigate appropriate instruction toward the realization of these concepts in the given exercises. While introducing parameters that would help flutists produce a more focused and well projected sound crucial for the expressive interpretation of music, it also motivates flute players to discover aspects of musicianship that lead to better intonation, artful blending of sound and better control and stamina in performance. Moreover, it helps flutists have particular objectives in mind while producing tone and sonorities to enhance expressive elements in the interpretation of a given piece.
    Keywords: Flute, Paris Conservatory, Tone Production, Pedagogy, Sound
  • Sayid Hossein Meysami * Pages 63-68
    The focus of this article is on music in Ghaznavid (977 – 1186 AD) period. In addition to Turkish culture, it was influenced by Persian and Arabic cultures. The aim of this research is to recognize the music of historical dynasty in middle Iranian history (After the dominance of Islam until modern times). This government is divided into three historical periods; in every period, the geographical area has been reduced. There are two subjects in this article: social and technical aspects of music. The king's interests for music, use of music in the feast and organization of court music have been studied with respect to the social aspects. With regards to technical aspects, musicologists, modal system and metric - rhythmic system have been studied. The method of this research is descriptive-analytical that not only tries to explain the events but also tries to analyze why and how music has been changed in the course of history. In this paper, two aspects of social and musical expertise constitute the basis of the article. Some of the kings of this dynasty were immensely into feasts. Music was one of the important elements in their feasts. There is no sign of music sanction on behalf of the kings in the sources. Musicians included music players, singers and professional poets. Music players sometimes played more than one instrument and singers could also play musical instruments. It is likely that the poets used to play music to make their poems more influential. Festivals and ceremonies were of great importance in Ghaznavid period. The court's entertainers could earn great money in this way; this issue affected the social welfare and classes significantly. Login Lowry/Loulian's arrival (a tribal Chandar/sandal) to the territory of Ghaznavid after the Sassanid era was the second migration of this group. Chndalan has been the sixth social class in India which puts them in the second rank before Donban (the seventh class in India) and were among the lowest social classes. This is why they were not considered high class by Iranians. Some think that this migration paved the way for their gradual dispersion from Iran to the west. There have been significant efforts on theoretical writings which ambiguously mirror somewhat the musical system of this period. The beliefs of the time played a significant role in the musical lives of musicians. There have been some different modes in the basic musical structure of this period such as Pardeh and Shobeh in which Nava, Sama, Râh/ Rah, Bâng and Alhân are made. Although these notions have sometimes been overlapped, it seems that the registers of three Pardeh Râst (Mother Mode) had an essential role in the formation of other modes, mode combination of mode foundation (perhaps derived from Râst) respectively. Metric-Rhythmic system is another aspect of the theoretical system of this period. According to the sources of this period it can be implied that Iqaat (Metric-Rhythmic modes) has been prevalent. Although Atanin was used in their transcription and solfege, there had been some sorts of inconsistency with systematics school.
    Keywords: Ghaznavid Music, Court, Music, Loulian, Musition, Musical System
  • Sasan Fatemi * Pages 69-76
    Ghazal-khâni, known in the official milieu as kuchebâghi, is a form of free-metered song using poems from the oral tradition, and sometimes even classical poems, sung especially in Tehran and the city of Rey by amateur singers who belong, in most cases, to a particular socio-cultural class. The place of this vocal genre in official Iranian culture is influenced by the status of its singers, who belong to a social class with more or less deep religious tendencies, but also have features deemed suspect according to ethical and social norms. This socio-cultural class, which inhabits the south of the socially polarized contemporary city of Tehran, and whose members are known as dâsh, dâsh mashdi, gardan koloft, jâhel, etc., has always had two opposing characteristics, oscillating between generosity and honesty, on one hand, and malfeasance, on the other, and has provoked sometimes respect and sometimes hate, but has always been the object of society’s suspicions. In fact, like the free-metered châhârpâre-khâni in different regions of Iran, ghazal-khâni is a kind of chanting of poems, which is, due to its links with the country’s poetic tradition, a sign of 'high culture' within a popular milieu, and therefore a source of prestige, at least for the gardan kolofts of good reputation who practice it. This form of song is also called bâbâ shamali, lâti (from lât = thug) and, since the 1940s, bayât-e Tehrân. It is sung a cappella and has didactic and religious texts. The performance of this kind of song obeys particular rules and was formerly sometimes part of a musical spar between the dâshesin cafes. It is an urban folk music, which shares its musical system with that of Iranian classical music, using the same modes. Yet it is more restricted than its classical counterparts and does not exploit all modal possibilities of this common system, but merely a few modes, particularly the Segâh, the Dashti, and the Homâyun. In performance, the singer does not use the complicated techniques and the melisma of classical singing, which is a kind of very fast yodel, so this singing is much simpler and lacks sophistication compared to its classical counterpart. Ghazal-khâni follows a particular form with regard to the order of the poems that are sung in every session. In fact, it is a suite with a defined order of pieces. The singer first sings one or two quatrains and then the main poem, which can be in the form of ghazal,but also, despite the genre’s name, in different forms of mosammat,particularly mokhammas and mosaddas. At the end, he concludes with another quatrain. The official milieu has poor knowledge about this form of song and was always misled regarding the content of its poems and its singing style. It has always confused this kind of song with the repertoire of the motrebs, which always contained satirical and comic poems, the quality completely absent from the poems of ghazal-khâni, because its content is very serious and sometimes even religious.
    Keywords: Ghazal, Châhârpâre, Dâsh Mashdi, Kuchebâghi, Bayât, e Tehrân