فصلنامه مطالعات زبان و ترجمه
سال پنجاهم شماره 4 (زمستان 1396)

Discourses and theories are produced in different ways, whether they are produced within the borders of a culture, or imported from a different culture through the channel of translation or other forms of rewriting (e.g. original writing on the imported discourse). In Iran, many modern discourses and theories are products of different types of translations. This does not mean that some elements of these discourses have not been previously present in Persian literary and philosophical works, but it means that such discourses and theories as coherent sets of knowledge, philosophy and theory and with a specific purpose and worldview are products of translation and importation from different cultures. However, few historical studies have been carried out in this regard and even in those few studies the role of translation in introducing new discourses has been totally ignored. Theoretical framework: The present study aimed to use, as Bandia (2006) suggests, the current theories and methodologies which are developed in the field of history. Thus, among the current theories, Reception Theory, proposed by Jauss (1970), has been suggested and modified to account for the way modern discourses in Iran are received.
Following Rundle's (2012) distinction between historical and scientific methods in historical translation studies, the present study aimed to avoid yielding a general account of the role of translation in the immigration of theories and discourses and instead focused on the history of the reception of modern discourses in Iran with a focus on the role of translation among other forms of rewritings. Thus, as Rundle (2012) suggested the results may interest a wider range of audience, historians as well as translation studies scholars. The present paper sought to emphasize the transfer of contemporary discourses as an important area in Historical Translation Studies in Iran and suggested it be an essential area for research among Translation Studies scholars in Iran. To this end, first, some of the ideas on the transfer of discourses and the current discussions in the field of historiography were briefly reviewed, and then an attempt was made to adapt Jauss's (1970) Reception Theory to the needs of Historical Translation Studies scholars interested in studying the transfer of discourses. Considering the importance of translation in the transfer and development of contemporary discourses, this paper attempted to propose a historical approach to address the issue of the transfer of contemporary discourses in Iran. Adopting a historical approach helps us avoid imposing a pre-existing theory on the data, and thus emphasizes the specific characteristics of the transfer of each discourse. In addition, the emphasis put on using the “Reception Theory” distinguishes it from similar approaches to the problem of the transfer of discourses which seek to examine the impact of imported discourses on the target culture.

The importance of writing as a complex skill in applied linguistics has drawn the attention of many researchers to evaluating textbooks in order to help learners gain self-sufficiency and autonomy in the field of language use and communication. Investigations have shown that developments in textbook evaluation can promote the quality of pedagogies and consequently, the quality of learning. Silva and Matsuda (2002) support the idea that writing, as part of applied linguistics, is a way of communication. It is the product of creative, dynamic learning process that spirals naturally upward, and outward toward limitless possibilities, as it is fostered by examples over time (John-Steiner, 1985). It is clear that this complex skill requires support from a rich qualitative pedagogical curriculum based on a process-based approach, which involves students in planning, drafting, revising, and editing (Seow, 1995). Investigations have shown that developments in the textbook evaluation can increase the quality of learning (e.g., Richards & Renandya, 2002; Tompkins, 1990; Zamel, 1982). To simplify the complexity of the writing skill, the teachers' role is salient both as the interpreters of materials and as the one who teaches the principles of writing. According to Zamel (1982), many teachers usually do not evaluate student’s compositions based on the crucial principles of writing. Instead, they present writing as something which has always existed and needs to be developed by practice.
Therefore, careful attention to the quality of the content is particularly important. There seem to be problems in the content, the order of the lessons, and the teaching approach in Persian writing textbooks, compared to the ones used for teaching English writing. This study was set out as a qualitative one. It attempted to analyze, first, the content of junior high and high school Persian textbooks and the EFL writing textbooks currently being taught at universities. It compared them with each other following three directions, namely subject matter frequencies, subject matter order, and teaching approach to writing. In fact, the study was set out to answer two research questions: “How do Persian textbooks present writing skill?” and “How do EFL textbooks present writing skill?”. The results of this study showed that the percentage and frequency of subject matters and pedagogical points related to writing in Persian textbooks are high, yet limited to a form of 'short notice' at junior high school. Although the writing lessons in high school textbooks are in an expanded lesson frame, they are still in the form of definitions or outlines as if they are just for exam purpose or for memorization. This is in opposition to theories of cognitive and conceptual learning (Ausubel, 1963). The results of the second phase of this study presented information that indicated how logically the subjects related to writing were set and organized in EFL textbooks and if they were organized based on the capability of the learner. The results revealed that lessons in EFL textbooks such as 'Writing with confidence' (Meyers, 2006; 2009) follow a logical order. A comparative study between the two systems (Persian and EFL textbooks) showed that EFL writing textbooks were much more carefully organized and designed. The topics in these course books were ordered from easy to difficult in teaching writing. They were written according to an organized pedagogical syllabus, which met learners’ needs and ability. Actually, reminding learners of the principles of writing made the writing process more effective. In contrast to EFL writing textbooks, there was no logical continuity in the order of lessons in Persian textbooks. It seems that Persian textbooks do not follow a logical order to present the relevant subjects and as a result, the topics and their order do not fit the capability of students. The results of the third phase of the study revealed that EFL textbooks emanate process-based approach whereas Persian textbooks implement the product-based approach. All in all, comparing the course books revealed that Persian textbooks do not deal with principles of writing comprehensively. The current study sought to compare EFL writing textbooks with Persian junior high and high school writing course books. The results revealed that there were differences in subject frequencies, the order of lessons presented, and the teaching approach. The results have implications for textbook writers. They can make modifications to the development of Persian textbooks. Reviewing the course books could lead to the students’ mastery of Persian written system as, among all factors that affect learning the writing skill, textbooks form one of the most important factors.

The twentieth century has been dramatically influenced by massive political and social changes. Literature, art, and science were also transformed heavily by the changes predominant in the society. In Europe, especially in France, many writers - with their works and their positions in various fields - have recorded their names in history. Julien Michel Leiris (1901-1990) is one of those writers who has left an enormous footprint throughout the 20th century. Critics usually have difficulty determining his position as a writer. Some consider him to be an autobiographer and label him as an eloquent poet who has succeeded in revolutionizing the concept of self. Others consider him as an ethnographer because of his numerous trips to Africa and his voluminous research on African tribes. His major book “Phantom Africa” impersonates his love for Africa and makes him a not so ordinary ethnographer. Given Michel Leiris’s diverse writings and special use of language, positioning him in a precise field or movement becomes utterly difficult. This is where French school’s discourse analysis concepts such as paratopie may help us better understand Michel Leiris as an author. Paratopie or paratopic to which we refer, is a theory developed by the French school of discourse analysis. Paratopie can be described as the condition through which the author constructs his identity (Maingueneau, 1993). A paratopic situation designates a paradoxical place, somewhere between the place and the non-place and the necessity to play in-between the two (Maingueneau, 2016). In this study, we tried to analyze the author’s position and some of the works he has produced. Based on the French theory of paratopie produced by the French linguist and discourse analyst, Dominique Maingueneau (1993), we investigated the paratopic situation of the author and his writings. According to Dominique Maingueneau’s (1993) theory, paratopie is a contradictory point or place, somewhere situated between the place and the non-place (Maingueneau, 2004) known as non-lieu in French. Dominique Maingueneau (1993) used the term parasite to characterize the concept of paratopie. By writing different books belonging each to a different genre, Michel Leiris is one of those rare authors who cannot be confined to one movement or genre. In his famous novels such as “Manhood” (1939) or “Rules of the game” (1948), he appears to be an autobiographer while in works like “Phantom Africa” (1934), he turns into an ethnographer; this is how he transformed himself into a paratopic author. The social and political period in which the author lived and his writings made him a paratopic writer. Leiris’s presence in the society, in different literary circles and his trips influenced his writings greatly and became an integral part of his creating process. This is precisely what we can label a paratopic motor. Leiris’s life as a child, his numerous trips with his family and his taste for culture have had an impact on his thinking patterns later. His interactions with the surrealists in the 1920s marked his career. His early works (1925) were hugely influenced by the revolutionary artistic movement until he met Marcel Griaule (1930), famous French ethnologist who would change his career forever. Michel Leiris accompanied Griaule in the Dakar-Djibouti mission which lasted two years (1931-1933). The mission in Africa and his exploration of African tribes led to one of his greatest books called “Phantom Africa” (1934). Leiris’s presence and activities in different fields of human sciences made it difficult to place him in one movement or genre. Novels such as “Manhood” or “Rules of the game” are considered as autobiographical acts and labeled as literary works whose language is heavily influenced by surrealist’s linguistic innovations. On the other hand, some critics consider him an ethnographer because of his deep involvement in ethnography. His long stay in Africa and his study of African tribes gave birth to what many consider to be his masterpiece “Phantom Africa” (1934). By studying this work closely, we can clearly notice that it is not merely an ethnographic book on the African tribes. The poetic and literary language seems to haunt the text from the very beginning where he quotes from the eighteenth-century French author Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). However, his look towards the otherness and the relation established between the self and the otherness transform his work into a philosophical ethno-autobiography. Today Leiris’s name is linked to different movements and genres. Critics who have studied his writings closely have established a link between ethnography and poetry in his language and some like Michel Beaujour (1987) have even gone as far as calling him a poet-ethnographer. This situation puts the author in a paratopic position, in an impossible place and, at the same time, shows how the borders between different genres and movements could be destabilized. Could we conclude that Leiris’s whole project can be resumed into the autobiographical act? An autobiography which leads itself towards the ethnography of the self and the other?

In recent years, research on emotions has attracted the attention of many researchers (Butz, Stupnisky, & Pekrun, 2015; Frenzel, 2014). Teachers’ emotions can be as important as students’ emotions. Although many studies have focused on investigating emotions among students, very few studies have examined emotions among teachers (Chang, 2009; Frenzel, 2014). Moreover, the studies which have examined emotions among teachers have mostly examined them in general education, and very few studies have been conducted on English language teachers’ emotions. To have a better understanding of learning and teaching English, it is necessary to get more familiar with teachers’ emotions. Teaching consists of different positive and negative emotions (Hargreaves, 1998). However, six discrete emotions are considered as the most salient ones (Frenzel, 2014). These emotions include enjoyment, pride, anxiety, anger, boredom, and shame. Although previous research has developed a scale for assessing emotions, this scale is limited only to enjoyment, anxiety, and anger, while other emotions among teachers have not been examined.
Teaching is full of emotions and these emotions play a vital role in teachers’ professional career (Hargreaves, 1998). Motivation, cognition, and emotions are considered to be three main components of the mind (Sutton & Wheatley, 2003). Teachers experience both positive and negative emotions. The importance of teachers’ emotions lies in the fact that they are related to other individual difference constructs which are related to both teachers and students.. For example, previous research has shown that negative emotions are directly related to teachers’ burnout, while positive emotions can hinder burnout (Chang, 2009, 2013). Among both positive and negative emotions, enjoyment is the most dominant emotion that teachers experience (Frenzel, 2014). Among negative emotions, anger is the main emotion experienced by teachers (Frenzel, 2014). The main reason for teachers’ anger has been reported to be students’ disruptive behavior (Chang, 2009). The purpose of the present study was to develop and validate a scale for assessing English language teachers’ emotions. This scale included items from previous studies as well as new items developed by the researchers. A total number of 326 teachers who were teaching English in language institues took part in this study. Among the participants, there were 227 female and 95 male teachers. Five participants did not write their gender. Teachers’ age ranged between 20 and 40 with a mean of 27.88. Moreover, teachers had between 1 and 21 years of teaching experience. In order to assess emotions, the newly developed qustionnaire was sent for the teachers online. The questionnaire assessed six emotions of enjoyment, pride, anxiety, anger, boredom, and shame. Each subscale included four items measured on a six-point Likert scale rangigng from strongly disagree to strongly agree. In order to analyze the data, exploratory factor analysis was run by SPSS. To check the unidimensionality of the scale, Rasch analysis was run by Winsteps. Finally, confirmatory factor analysis was run by Mplus. In order to check the unidimensionality of the scale, Rasch analysis was conducted. MNSQ statistics confirmed the unidimensionality of the scale. Following this, exploratory factor analysis was run. Before that, KMO and Bartlett test of sphricity were investigated in order to be sure that the data were ready for factor analysis. Upon confirming the factorability of the scale, exploratory factor analysis with principal component analysis and varimax rotation was run. The results showed a six-factor solution and items loading on each factor. Three items did not load on any factor due to very low factor loadings and therefore were removed for further analyses. Finally, confirmatory factor analysis was conducted and goodness-of-fit indices were all within the acceptable range. In addition to validity, reliability of the subscales was also investigated using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from .64 to .88 which confirmed the reliability of the subscales. This study was conducted to develop and validate a scale for measuring English language teachers’ emotions in the Iranian context. Results of Rasch analysis, exploratory factor analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the construct validity of the scale. This questionnaire can be used by researchers for future research. Supervisors in English language institutes can also benefit from this scale. For example, using this questionnaire, supervisors can become aware of their teachers’ emotions and provide more support for the teachers accordingly. Like all studies, this research had some limitations. While we tried to develop a scale for the most important emotions, there are still other emotions which were not included in the present scale. Therefore, future research is needed to develop scales for other emotions. Moreover, validity and reliability of this research are limited to the present study and further research is needed to confirm the validity and reliability of this research in other contexts.

In this study, it was attempted to analyze “The legend of Saint Julian the hospitalier” (La légende de Saint-Julien l'hospitalier) by Gustave Flaubert using Gilbert Durand’s method. Inspired by the paintings on the windows of Rouen’s city cathedral, Flaubert imagined and wrote the second narrative of “the legend of Julien L'hospitalier”. The present inquiry aimed at examining this narrative according to myth-criticism and myth-analysis method.
During the 1950s, one of the significant incidents in the French literature was the emergence of a set of literary criticism methods which were known as “new criticism”. The basis in conventional criticism was majorly considered to be “judgment” or evaluating works of art, whereas new criticism attempts to describe and interpret such works without judgment. Words such as theme, creative subject, the relationship between the writer’s and the reader’s second identities, imagination, awareness, myth-criticism, and myth-analysis are some of the main themes in “new criticism”. Myth-criticism and myth-analysis have originated from the beliefs and opinions of Gaston Bachelard (1948), whose beliefs have influenced Gilbert Durand (1979) as well. To establish myth-criticism, Gilbert Durand (1979) neglected material imagination criticism related to Gaston Bachelard’s (1948) thoughts so as to lay out a new approach called myth-criticism and myth-analysis. In fact, the readers of Durand’s works have constantly observed a perpetual continuity in his methods of literary criticism. For instance, myth is the mutual, permanent feature in his various studies and investigations. The methodology of Durand’s (1979) literary criticism involves establishing a second valuation of myth epistemology. Durand’s (1979) works are among the best works dealing mythical thinking. For Durand (1979), both myth and imagination are the starting and ending points of any science or art research. This means that myth and imagination are analogous to an intersection in which historical, social, and philosophical subjects along with psychological motives enter one another. In Durand’s (1996) method of literary criticism, reading myth is a key to understanding any work of literature arts, or even science.
This study sought to provide answers to the following questions: How does Flaubert’s system of imagination produce meanings in this narrative? Which myth has this system of imagination been inspired by? Why have these images been imposed on mind? What other images are contextually called into mind by the images and to what kind of images do they refer? It was hypothesized that since a pure literary work is inspired by its own discourse and cultural texture as well as the myths of that culture, such a work must be formed through religious, heroic legends. The present study was conducted in line with two purposes. Firstly, this study was set out to introduce a subjective-objective method for text analysis so as to gain access to the main sensory-cognitive and imaginary core of the text and its author through different images and diverse verbal networks. Consequently, the researchers can ultimately reach a creative self and understand meaning among such thick layers. The second purpose of the study was demonstrating the position of the creative self. As a result, there are certain questions posed such as how can a myth-criticism critic reach these complex figurative networks? Is empathy alone enough for reading a text, or should one resort to structural analyses related to the author’s imagination? As a matter of fact, myth-criticism and myth-analysis enable the critic to consider literature subjectively and, at the same time, to take it as an element which is self-critical. Subsequently, the role of empathy is highlighted in this criticism. According to these two objectives, another purpose was formed: how can this method be implemented on “three stories, the legend of Julien L'hospitalier” by Gustave Flaubert (1965). Imagination is benefited by the rules governing its products and involves a fixed syntactic combination. The presence of images is indicated by predetermined rules; yet, it is believed that individuals also influence the predetermined structures, since individuals live in their own particular cultural context and both influence the context and its structures and are influenced by rules governing the context. Symbolism is the product of environment in which humans evolve and change as it involves features that are particular to the human mind. Among these features, the desire or libido defined by psychology should be taken into account. Geographical and global facts, social structures, awareness on female fertility, awareness on masculine power, all of these external, and the objective data of cognition are integrated with our deepest desires so as to form our representation of the world. Between these two dimensions of reality, one objective and the other intrinsic, there is a perpetual exchange between constant reciprocating imaginations, which is called anthropology path by Gilbert Durand (1992), since it distinguishes the movement of human mind. This path specifies the definition for imagination. As a result, imagination according to Durand’s (1992) theory is a dynamism which indicates a representation of the world through the twofold impact that is, being influenced by the environment, desires or libido. On the one hand, desires or intrinsic commands shape the representation of the outer reality. On the other hand, necessities and objective commands of the environment help shape intrinsic desires. Symbolic images forming the imagination are created through such interaction. Ultimately, a question can be posed as the research prospect: Can one find a method based on which instead of focusing on concept (as Durand does) focus on linguistic creativity? It is believed that such focusing on linguistic creativity is completely essential because, in this way, a connection could be made between language and imagination

Ambiguity has been the point of difference between scholars in linguistics and those in literary rhetoric from long ago, and there are various theories in this regard; however, no serious attempt has been made to clarify how ambiguity is signified in this rhetorical category and to represent how it can be employed based on human unconscious. Previous research seems to have addressed a unique but superficial definition for ambiguity offering some examples. In this paper, the position of equivocal figures as a system of semiotics was studied with reference to decoding of aesthetics. Moreover, the study investigated the nature of communication techniques and how words signified meaning in the semiotic science. The present study, initially, addressed the understanding of rhetorical figures of ambiguity and the domains of its meanings; furthermore, it investigated the artistic and aesthetic values of rhetorical figures of ambiguity. Having confirmed the rising of the norms for meaning representation in rhetorical figures, the researchers employed the framework of decoding in semiotics to analyze ambiguity. Most literary scholars and literary critics agree unanimously that ambiguity deserves to be taken into consideration as a rhetoric trick with aesthetic value. However, so far, researchers have just contented themselves with superficial definitions of ambiguity which are not satisfactory. Therefore, it is important and necessary to analyze ambiguity deeply and more systematically.
Ambiguity or ambiguity is one of the most practical figures in rhetoric knowledge which deals with the spread of meaning in speech. Ambiguity (creating illusion and making supposition) or ambiguity (speaking unclearly and indirectly) is a way of interpretation since it is represented in a word including two meaning: one which is clear as it is the denotative meaning of the word and the other which is hidden in the word (Hamooy, 2005; Syooti, 2000; Matloob, 2000). Speech is the most fundamental and important tool in expressing thought, and it is the cornerstone of the emergence of human worldview. Ambiguity challenges human mind and imagination and makes him think about the intended meaning of the speaker. This psychological state makes speech attractive, and the reader can comprehend the equivocal ornaments when he is aware of the different meanings of words and expressions. The purpose of the speaker’s meaning is the speech that carries a message and conveys a meaning that is inherently a structure. Of the relevant issues that are germane to the issue of the present study is the function of word when there is more than one meaning and this has been the point of difference among scholars (Tayeb Hosseini, 2008). Literature benefits from creating multiple significations, as the natural abilities of language, and it represents ambiguity. It can be said that any type of ambiguity includes multiple significations, but any multiple signification does not mean ambiguity. In any particular literary works, we can create to an imaginative image of reality by means of signs. What is important in this type of communication is the conveyance of internal and personal experience, and other communicative signs help linguistic signs in conveying internal experience and aesthetic sense. A word does not consist of multiple significations just because of having multiple concepts, even if it has the potentiality for multiple significations. The real multiple signification emerges provided that a particular relation is established between the concepts and this happens in occasions that the word or sentence is, firstly, positioned in linguistic context (or paralinguistic context) and secondly, multiple meanings can be considered for it based on the context. Scholars in rhetoric science in Islam have expanded the discussion of form and meaning with the titles of word and meaning, and among this expertise in literature, some authenticate words, others authenticate meaning, and yet others authenticate both of them. The present paper focuses on the theories and voices of one of the eminent figures named Jacques Lacan (1989) who is a physician, psychoanalyst, and philosopher does not believe that there is no meaning. He (1989) believes that there may be many signifieds for a signifier; therefore, it would be useless to search for one single meaning, and the more we search for meaning, the less we can get to it. As a result, Lacan (1989) does not believe in the lack of meaning, but he believes in the existence of multiple meanings that can be confusing and his idea challenges the attempts made by the analysts to delve into the text (Clement, 1983). Another issue that should be analyzed is the way poets and writers deal with language categories. Poets deal with language differently. Some choose to utilize words with the existing clichés and accepted meanings of them, others try to avoid that, and yet others go beyond that. Avoiding the use of accepted meanings of words needs devices and tools and ambiguity is one of the most important tools for fulfilling this aim. As many different meanings can be understood from a word if writers employ ambiguity, ambiguity is used to a great extent and it provides writers with the necessary tool. A complicated form of signification exists in which the relationship between the sign and its meaning is even more indirect. Ambiguity belongs to this category. At this level, the meanings of words and signs are associated with the hidden meanings indirectly and the meaning is far from the sign or the form, and it is independent of the sign or the form (Sadowski, 2001). If we want to study ambiguity only with reference to the definitions provided by the predecessors in rhetoric books, we have to mention that ambiguity, in either words or in meaning, doesn’t bring a single meaning to the mind of the reader. We cannot decide which meaning comes to the mind of the reader. Moreover, there are ample cases in which we cannot prefer one meaning to another in principle, but there are various reasons that may influence the meaning, and the mind of the reader has a fundamental role in meaning-making. The more the addressee is familiar with the various meanings, the more he can appreciate the employed ambiguity. That is the reason why the definition of this figure has been proposed and attempts have been made to get familiar with it. This will the reader in terms of vocabulary and awareness and will assist them in understanding the text (Mortezaee, 2014). All great poets, at one point in their literary lives, have unconsciously followed the accepted language norms at some period of time. They have been able to cope with this issue by means of gaining knowledge and literary insight and getting access to expertise in the domain of linguistics. This has enabled them to coin new words and use language creatively. Gaining expertise in the field could help in understanding meaning and responding to the signs. This ability is accessible to those who possess interpretive systems which are equipped with the power of information processing. Indeed, at this level, the physical signs become the semiotic signs, and the association between the meaning and the sign becomes the evidence for proximity, analogy or arbitrariness. Aesthetic decoding which is more pertinent to the given category of the present paper, i.e. ambiguity, can be employed to express the internal feelings and the whole mental experiences of human facing reality; therefore, aesthetic signs are the images of reality.

Emphasizing on the value of prefaces as a paratextual device that shapes the mediation among books, authors, and readers, Genette (1987) underlined that each paratextual element has its own history which is worth broad and comprehensive investigations. Based on a narrative account, translatorial prefaces are considered as the story of translators, the story of self, and an “ontological” narrative according to Somers and Gibson (1993, p. 2). Everyone not only has a story, but also has a right to tell his/her story (Bamberg, 2011). Baker (2006) brought the genre, translatorial preface, to the fore as a framing tool. She referred to framing as a way for individuals to “consciously participate in the construction of reality” (p. 106). Foregrounding the agency of translators, she (2006) asserted that narratives construct realities rather than merely representing them. The current study aimed to investigate the translatorial prefaces and their changes during the last sixty years in Iran. Therefore, a representative corpus was required. The corpus included one hundred and four randomly sampled translatorial prefaces written by Iranian translators to the first published editions of their translations of fictions from different languages into Persian during the years 1330-1390. To analyze narratives in a discursive context as translatorial prefaces, a threefold model was devised, examining the form, content, and function of the prefaces. In analyzing the form of the prefaces, the translatorial prefaces were investigated in terms of their title, length, setting, pagination, and signature. The findings of this part were mostly quantitatively analyzed. The second phase of this study was a content analysis which mostly entailed a qualitative approach. To analyze the content, the six-phase thematic analysis method proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006) was applied. The findings of the first two folds were fed into an interpretative functional approach, drawing on the categorization introduced by Dimitriu (2009). To start with a general thesis, it can be claimed that based on the findings of the study, translatorial prefaces have been earning more prominence as time passes; the number of prefaces seemed to be following an increasing trend from 1330 to 1390, hence the reframing strategy of “selective appropriation”, introduced by Baker (2006, p. 71), has been at work, not only throughout the form, content, and function of prefaces, but also from the very beginning with the decision on writing or not writing a preface. The translators’ decision to initiate a preface is one of the main determining steps toward visibility.
The findings of data analyses in all the three folds of form, content, and function can be divided into the concepts which showed meaningful changes, and the ones that remained unchanged or did not follow any meaningful change. Considering the titles or labels of translatorial prefaces revealed that among the five main types of titles, the title “Translator’s”+ a generic term was the most frequent one in the past sixty years. “Translator’s Introduction”; “Translator’s Note”; and “Translator’s Preface” were first, second, and third most frequently observed titles; however, “Translator’s Note” showed an increasing trend during the last sixty years and was utilized more significantly in the last two decades. Concomitant to the rise in the use of the term “Note” in the titles, the length of translatorial prefaces also followed a decreasing trend during the last sixty years. This change was more prominent during the last two decades under study.
Investigating the content of the prefaces demonstrated that “presenting / recommending the text” has been the most frequent theme in all decades. Finding that the “biographical or critical information on the author” has been the second most frequent theme in sixty years was expressive of the status of the source author; however, the focus on critical information on the author has overtaken the biographical aspect through time. Not only has the amount of biographical information decreased, but also cases were observed where their position had changed from the beginning to the end of the prefaces. This change in the emplotment is not of course void of significance. The themes related to the status of the source text and the author have indicated a gradual wane in the last two decades under study. On the other hand, the theme of “readership”, as the fourth most frequent theme in the last sixty years, seemed to be consequently gaining more popularity. The prominence given to readership may not be only because readers were gaining more importance, but also because translators were becoming more conscious of their role in mediating their own narratives to readers through their translatorial prefaces. The theme of “strategies of translating” as the third most frequent theme and as an answer to the theme “difficulties/problems of translating” did not show any quantitatively meaningful change but indicated some qualitative changes.
To conduct a macro analysis, the findings of the form and content analyses were fed into a function analysis. Working out eight distinct functions based on the three main functions introduced by Dimitriu (2009), the researcher found that despite the long-established and still present dominance of informative/descriptive function, the struggle of explanatory function for dominance especially during the last two decades is not ignorable. In other words, translators’ prefaces have been displaying indications of a change from the narratives valuing source text analyses, source authors, and the socio-cultural contexts of the source to the ones pursuing the target text and translators’ problems, strategies, and decision makings. Translatorial prefaces to literary texts, mostly those with explanatory function, are valuable sources to be studied by critics as well as readers because they provide a detailed account, nowhere else available, of the translators’ meeting with texts. Critics and readers can avail themselves from one more narration of a text provided by translatorial prefaces as an effective reframing device. Any change in the Meta/Master narratives on translator and translation must start from within the narratives of translators themselves. This must be the concern and responsibility of the translators, before all, to increase the public awareness and (re)construct the conceptual and Meta narratives which represent translators’ identities and status.

In the 1950s, Sapir and Whorf suggested that the cultural concepts and categories inherent in different languages determine their cognitive classification, making speakers of different languages think and behave differently. Since then, the topic of teaching and learning second/foreign language (L2) and the role of culture in L2 instructions have been a matter of considerable interest among language educators, with a particular focus on language learners’ identity. With the increasing use of English on the global scale, many L2 learners have developed a sense of cosmopolitan identity as a member of global community (Ghahari, 2015; Sung, 2013). Some researchers, on the other hand, have reported that L2 learners display their first language (L1) identities (e.g., Canagarajah, 2005; Kitao, 2008). There are still other studies which have discovered the possibility of constructing glocal or hybrid identities (e.g., Sung, 2014). However, the existing studies have examined the concept of identity in relation to accent (e.g., Sung, 2013), L2 proficiency level (e.g., Khodadady & Ghahari, 2012), in language institutes (e.g., Pishghadam & Saboori, 2011), and from L2 instructors’ viewpoint (e.g., Pishghadam & Sadeghi, 2011). Therefore, the present research examined sociocultural identity of L2 learners’ at college-level in terms of home culture attachment (HCA), cultural adaptation (CA), culture quotient (CQ), and politeness. The data were collected via the administration of multiple measures and checklists to English (n=98) and non-English (n=95) major students at two universities. The checklists included home culture attachment (r=0.75), pragmatic skills (r=0.71), cultural quotient (r=0.72), and cultural adaptation (r=0.68). Thus, the study followed a 4 × 2 factorial design. The results of a one-way ANOVA demonstrated that the English group was the higher achiever in terms of CQ and politeness and the lower achiever in HCA domain compared with the non-English group.
Respecting the outperformance of L2 learners in cultural quotient, the nature of L2 learning as a means to promote communicative competence and intercultural competence needs to be taken into account (Kern & Kramsch, 2014). Intercultural competence is defined as the ability to deal with the differences which are derived from everyday communication (Magos & Simopoulos, 2009). Hence, the development of intercultural competence enables L2 learners to observe other people’s behaviors, reflect on their own culture in the light of others’, and cooperate more effectively with people from other cultures.
Another strength of L2 learners was at the level of politeness. In order to use language appropriately, L2 learners need a fair command of pragmalinguistic and socio-pragmatic competencies (Brown & Levinson, 1987) to avoid being considered rude by native speakers. This will lead them to become more aware of the target culture norms, to recognize the relationships and differences between the target and their own cultural norms, and finally, to be more sensitive toward them.
One possible explanation for the L2 students’ degree of alienation could be identity conflict. Although it is less severe than identity conflicts in English as second language environments, identity conflict is mainly created in EFL contexts by the pedagogic textbooks and materials and could gradually lead L2 learners to observe their home culture more critically (Pishghadam & Sadeghi, 2011). The present study aimed to shed light on the impact of L2 learning on learners’ sociocultural identity in the globalization era. The ultimate results indicated the presence of English goes beyond utilitarian values, encompassing a range of benefits in L2 learners’ lives and social skills. Yet, the impact of English for individuals is multiplex and mutually re-enforcing, having negative consequences as such. Finally, university instructors are advised to adopt a reflective, interpretive, sociocultually grounded, and politically engaged L2 pedagogy in order to enable L2 learners to realize and appreciate the values of other cultures while maintaining and enriching their own.