نشریه تاریخ اسلام و ایران
سال بیست و هفتم شماره 34 (تابستان 1396)

Concentrative plans, magisterial modernization, national unification and regime’s efforts to form a unified government, during the reign of Reza Shah, as the key characteristics of this era, caused so many reforms, e.g. in Iran’s administrative system. Along with expansion of bureaucratic procedures, women were also employed and thereby a new class, the female employees, has been gradually created. Some programs, such as unveiling, expanding education, especially for women, had a great influence on increasing the number of female employees. This was one of the main features of administrative system in the era, which is the problem we are going to shed light on. Through a descriptive-analytic method and based on documentaries and library sources, we shall study the status of women in administrative system during the reign of Reza Shah. As a result, we can claim that in this era, for the first time, and despite to all their legal and civil failures, women of course less than men, could contribute in Iran’s bureaucratic system. However, some factors, e.g. cultural structure of the society and government’s discrimination in paying attention to different cities, eventually caused that their employment was confined mainly to Tehran and in modern educational system.

Bread was the major food of Iranian people in the Qajar period, and its high cost especially during the First World War (1332-1336/ 1914-1918), was a pervasive problem in all regions of Iran. In the west part of the country, the people of Kurdistan suffered from famine and the high cost of bread. Unlike the other regions of Iran, inspite of the withdrawing of foreign forces, widespread rainfall, and abundant grain in Kurdistan, nothing changed there and the scope of inflation became broader after 1918/1336. Hence "the problem of the high cost of bread" in Kurdistan under the Qajars needs to be analyzed and reexamined. This article tries to investigate that which elements where involved in increasing of the cost of bread in Qajar period? (1332-1342/1914-1924). The findings of the current study show that the factors which led to high cost of bread in Kurdistan under the Qajarids, provided good conditions to remove other factors. This study, based on the documents, statements and local resources-under the descriptive and analytic method- seeks to explain the causes of development and duration of this social problem. It also tries to show that how the factors of developing the problem of high cost of bread, for gaining more benefits, used the problem for removing each other.

In the history of Fars history and in the history of social studies in this area, the state of public health is one of the important issues. The review of archival documents and its history during the years 1304 - 1320, indicates the scope of institutional action in the field of public health. At that time, health institutions undertook general government policies for modernization, activities to monitor public health and manage the crises caused by the epidemic of contagious diseases. The present paper, with the help of archival documents and other historical evidence, seeks to provide an overview of the state of politics and public health in Fars during Pahlavi era. Based on the main objectives of the research in this paper, while explaining the threats to public health and the harmful factors in this regard, approaches of the government and other community groups in this regard will also be considered.
The findings of this study indicate the impact of the actions of health institutions and the government on the challenges of this area and the impact of social and cultural capitals on addressing health problems and threats to public health. Cooperation of educational managers and health administrations in maintaining public health in this area is an obvious example of cooperation of social and cultural capitals.

Surgery requires a lot of expertise, experience and precision among the various branches of traditional medicine in the Islamic period. The purpose of this study is to find the principles and techniques used by surgeons from the third to the twelfth century A.H. The research method is descriptive-comparative with sample analysis. The results indicate that some of the basic principles and techniques used at this period were accepted from the east to the west of the Islamic world. The surgeons of this period had a clear cognitive distinction of various diseases. Their main principles are precaution, diagnosis of recovery and surgical repair, preventing bleeding and suturing. Another basic principle of Islamic surgery is the need for a surgeon to fully understand the combination of drugs and herbs. Surgical techniques for the ear, throat and nose include: cauterize spot of the ear, cauterize nose, cauterize with medicines in the throat, split from top to bottom in the throat, splitting the width inside the throat, splitting the ear closure, restore root to nose, split with a secret rod technique, object treatment in the ear with split method, cutting technique by lifting method, cut off tonsils and tonsils. In all these stages, familiarity with a wide range of surgical instruments and techniques is very evident. It's cicatrix in the shape of a dot, nail and olive, various hooks, Surgical knife, hard head, drill hidden rod, tweezer, Moving rod, scissor, test url and plier. Also, the Islamic period surgeons for the removal of various objects in the ear and throat, Such as rocks or leeches and worms, used tools such as hooks and tweezers, nipples and pipes.

While the period of the reign of Mehmet II (855-886 / 1451-1481), due to establishing of Madaris-i Sahn-i Thiman and spreading of Madrasa education, is considered as an important turning point in the history of the Ottomans, but the relations of ‘Ilmiyye class and the Ottoman state during the period, because of the absolute authority of this sultan, spent the specific and different conditions. In prior periods, Madrasa educators and ‘Ilmiyye class by their scholastic knowledge and religious status always had great influence on the Ottoman state and its important decisions. As far as the appointment of Grand Vizier, as the most powerful person in the structure of the Ottoman state after the Sultan, among madrasa graduators, becomes a tradition and companionship of this class actually was one of the main components in the legitimacy of the Ottoman sultans. But conquest of Istanbul in the early years of Mehmet II reign in 1453/857, that was called him as the Conqueror, increased the power and authority of this Sultan in a way that he did not feel any need of the participation of Madrasa graduators in power and gain of legitimacy through obtaining their satisfaction. Hence, unusual to established manner, he abandoned the appointment of grand vizier from the Madrasa graduators and replaced that by appointment of someone from his slaves (|åls) to completely obey his orders. Accordingly, the position and influence of the Madrasa graduators and ‘Ilmiyye class in the Ottoman state decreased significantly in his during reign and despite the complaint of outstanding ‘Ulemas from this conditions Mehmet the Conqueror did not his change the procedures about the Madrasa graduators and ‘Ilmiyye.

The main purpose is to study the social structures of the Safavid age with particular attention to subject of social classes in capacity and process of civilization of that time. The importance of this is that the Safavid class system can be described as an adaptable system with the focus on opportunity and reciprocity. With the rise of Safavids (1180-1907), a dynamic classical articulation (classical co-existence) has always been provided between nomadic, peasant and urban communities (urban commodities), as the Safavids defined social structure of Iran with emphasis on a new religious and national identity. The whole formation of social classes of the Safavids was like a substrate that in the shadow of this arose political and national unity, civilization, social welfare, economic and cultural dynamism, and extensive relations with the foreign states. This description does not mean to confirm all aspects of the class structure of the Safavid era during the periods of the Safavid kings, because the changes of social, economic, religious, and governmental practices, has played a key role in creating a class structure in the era of various Safavid kings. The present study aims to use the descriptive-analytical method for investigate and analyze the course of civilization in the social classes of the Shiite government of Safavid in the perspective of the political, social and economic life of the society as the foundation and infrastructure for subsequent periods, while considering the necessity of applying sociological approaches in analysis of historical phenomena and based on library resources.