نشریه پژوهش های هستی شناختی
پیاپی 3 (بهار و تابستان 1392)

Nominalism is known as a new movement in the field of epistemology versus extreme realism; the movement was developed by William of Ockham at end of middle ages. Okham`s thought influenced next scholars deeply and many of contemporary philosophers agreed with him. In this paper, the principles of Ockham`s epistemological nominalism have been explained and criticized. Ockham`s razor was a fit instrument for him to negate a great number of abstractive and metaphysical beings including objective and subjective universals. Following direct realist empiricism in epistemology and negating Aquinas and other realists` sensible and intelligible, rejected all objective essences and universal mental suppositions and viewed universal concepts of mind to be only a mental sign with logical usage.

Common idea of partial causes is Aristotelian four causes. Yet, some thinkers have known other causes such as preparer, mu`idd, condition and lack of obstacle to be partial causes. Philosophers of the common Aristotelian idea have given some arguments against this view. In the paper, it is argued that the preparer may not be counted a cause; since contrary to cause and effect, it is separate from cause. Again, those of common idea have known the condition and the lack of obstacle as parts of the agent or the material cause; since they complete either the former or the latter and, therefore, they may not be considered as free causes. In other words, one may not agree with the principle, for freedom of causality is not possible in the case of partial causes. As for the cause of purpose as one of the four, there cannot be found any other effect for it except completing the causality of the agent and, therefore, it may not be counted as partial cause. Again, one can argue against causality of the lack of obstacle as it is nonexistential and, therefore, it is of no existential effect. Yet, as we know, by lack of obstacle is meant an existential thing and with this consideration, it can be counted as a partial cause.

As is understood in common philosophy, true definition is formed from essential concepts of things and it is due to mind`s knowledge of the thing. It is, therefore, necessary in each case of knowledge for the object and subject to be explained. On Sadra`s ultimate principles, object consists in an extended shadowy existence with three gradations including corporeal, imaginary and intellectual ones of which the last two have been regarded as accidentals and modes of the first. And such is the subject; it may upgrades with an substantial departure. The subject`s knowledge is appropriate to its grade in existence and knows the objects of that grade. And we know that true definition is due to our knowledge to essentials and essentials are the same as intellectual grade. It is, therefore, impossible for subject, when being in sensible and imaginary gradation, to attain essentials. Again, true definition is restricted to knowledge by correspondence, while such a kind of knowledge is impossible in the intellectual grade. Therefore, it is concluded that it is not possible for subject at any grade to attain true definition. Attaining the truth of things is in the field of knowledge by persistence with regard to the subject level of existence.

The trying scholars` way of studying ethical problems such as objectivism or subjectivism, consequentialism or deontologism, functionalism or vertuism, those attracting the attention of them nowadays, is rooted in their different principles and presuppositions. In this paper, it has been sought to find out Molla Sadra`s principles and presuppositions firstly and then, relying on his principles, have presented his outlook in ethics with regard to his solutions for the mentioned problems. Relying on such bases as principality of existence, gradational unity of existence and … he has given a new idea of such categories as human being, good and evil. For him, ethics is known as a natural gift with regard to primary nature and distinct point of human beings with regard to secondary nature. As is viewed by Sadra, religion and reason support one another in ethical training of human being. Furthermore, in such a deep and comprehensive unity, the duality of objectivism or subjectivism, consequentialism or deontologism, functionalism or vertuism would disappear and all of them are known to be directed to one final goal. Finally, human nature, free will and knowledge have been known for him as the main agents for ethical training.

With regard to his special consideration on absolute existence, human existence and the relation between them, Molla Sadra has given a new idea on knowledge different than Muslim Aristotelian philosophers. As is explained in the paper, with regard to Sadra`s view on creational structure of human being and its relation with the knowledgeable and considering his new principles in the field, though it is generally believed that human soul as perceiving generals is common in all human beings and is put under one species, it gradually distinguishes from others by the help of the manner in which human mind acts. It should be stated that changing of knowledge is to such an extent that one cannot find the same kind and degree of knowledge even in two instances; yet, such dynamic state of human perception does not break the unity, stability and individuality of human soul.

Suhrawardi believes in an existential part for beauty, taken as goodness, in his cosmological system. This view may be regarded as an introduction for his aesthetics. This paper includes a study for finding the meaning of beauty and its properties based upon Suhrawardi`s teachings. For the purpose, at first, the meaning of beauty and, then, existential place of good and love have been brought into consideration and thereof objectivity, gradation and correlation with knowledge have been proved as the properties of beauty. The properties may lead to an illuminative art caused by the link of artist`s spirit to higher worlds, his deep tendency and desire. Such an art`s fruits may be considered copies and examples of the highest world.