نشریه مطالعات معماری ایران
سال ششم شماره 11 (بهار و تابستان 1396)

The ancient site of Tchogha Zanbil was a complex in the Elamite city of Dur Untash. It was protected inside three concentric walls. The ziggurat, temples and palaces and other urban facilities were inside the walls of the ancient city. Tchogha Zanbil is also famous because of its water technologies, especially the water system in the third enclosure of the ancient site. Roman Ghirshman (1895-1979) who carried out the main excavations at the site supposed that it was a water refinery system for the use of the city inhabitants. Nevertheless, the high altitude of the ancient city and the lack of evidence of the existence of a canal from the Karkheh River raise the question of the function and mechanism of this water system. The possibility of the system to have been a drainage system or a reservoir to save water is also precisely studied. Geological surveys of natural drainage paths, examination of the discharge of urban runoff, and biological and environmental studies were carried out. Documentation was carried out with a laser scanning system, as well as geophysical and hydrological surveys that were used to map the inner channels of the system. Finally, the studies show that the draining function can be a plausible hypothesis in view of hydraulic engineering for the Tchogha Zanbil water system.

This paper explores a basic architectural model regarding spatial organization and planning in Iranian historical architecture, named herein as the “central space model,” which can be found in numerous historical buildings such as tombs and garden pavilions. This paper aims to determine the architectural features of this model and demonstrate its capacity in taking various functions. The necessity of pursuing this study is to signify the continuum of architectural models in the long history of Iranian architecture—that which gives it its unique character and dynamic identity. This research is a case study of an architectural model within a small group but of a broad set of features. The research takes on an interpretive approach based on existing examples, historical documentations and library resources. It is hypothesized that the main goal in using the “central space model” in various buildings has been its power to concentrate the eyes and mind to focus on a central element of the interior space. The mentioned central space with regard to the building's function was either the ruler’s seat in a palace, or the central fountain in a garden or sometimes the sanctuary in a tomb. The results confirm that when facing similar functions and motives, contemporary architects have a powerful model for space organization at hand that, if employed, can ensure the continuity and dynamism of Iranian architecture.

In recent years, the majority of developed countries have invested in high-density developments as a solution to social sustainability, whereas in developing countries, dense urban areas are created largely with an economic justification and with the goal of accommodating a larger population in one place. Density is an objective/quantitative indicator of the compactness of dwelling units and of population size. However, in practice, it influences different residential life conditions such as social conditions, safety in communal spaces, and perception of the environment. Therefore, not only quantitative aspects but also subjective implications of density should be taken into account. The perceptions of density in residents can be different from its nominal value and are rather based on their subjective judgment of place. Such perceptions and judgments depend on various cues and elements, physical factors being among the most important. Knowing about these cues and their prioritization in planning can reduce the negative impacts of high-density residential environments. The aim of this study is to determine which physical environmental factors affect the perceived density. After a library research and interviews with housing experts, a perceived density questionnaire survey was conducted for 110 residents in three similar urban neighborhoods with the same residential and population densities and the same resident socioeconomic status in Mashhad, Iran. Exploratory factor analysis displayed eight major factors, i.e., height of buildings, distance between buildings, view from dwelling units, and visual exposure, which are the most important factors influencing the perception of density. This means that the perceived density depends on spatial configuration, housing types, and the arrangement of residential elements and communal open spaces.

Creativity is a concept that is counted nowadays as a person’s most valuable characteristics. It is highly important in the literature of architectural education and the profession. Its normative place in architectural design makes it an essential subject of study. The “meaning” of this concept is put into question in this paper due to its source of normative value. The research method is a theoretical debate based on an interpretive strategy in conjunction with rational reasoning and conceptual modeling. A three-dimensional model is introduced to present all logical aspects of a comparative study of creativity within modern and traditional philosophical stances. In the two other dimensions, the “ontological” and “ethical” aspects of creativity are studied, as well as the “precedent-based” vs. “non-precedent-based” architecture. The ontological study refuted, or at least, questioned the claim that there is some phenomenon as creatio ex nihilo (creation from nothing), which is valid in both traditional as well as modern stances. Therefore, creativity always incorporates prior knowledge, with the difference lying in the tacit or explicit representation of the source of creativity. This could also be related to the contextual or non-contextual source of inspiration. This distinction is investigated in traditional and modern structures of the Shrine of Hazrat-e Ma‘sumeh. Lastly, the ethical value of the deductive and inductive nature of architectural creation is discussed with reference to modern as well as Islamic points of view. It is concluded that there is no ontological difference in traditional or modern thinking regarding creative activity and that the point of departure pertains to the ethical aspects, making either explicit or tacit source of creativity preferable. In this paper, it is shown that from the Islamic stance, explicit precedents are considerably valued over tacit precedents.

Architectural design inspired by nature is one of the conventional methods in architectural design, but different types of the influence of nature on architectural design are not well studied yet. In spite of the importance of the type of inspiration, there is not a significant research about the relation of this method with other methods of architectural creation, nor about the correct way of inspiration. In this paper, at first we analyze different methods of architectural creation, and among them, introduce the method of analogy. Patterns in nature are introduced, and different approaches of analogy with nature are classified. Secondly, an empirical research was done investigating the performance of undergraduate architectural students. The sketches were categorized according to the type of analogy used. The results indicate that analogy is a significant method among other methods of architectural creation. The patterns in nature have formal, functional-structural, and conceptual attributes, and there are three approaches (structural analogy, superficial analogy, and metaphor) in creating from these attributes. Results show that the student’s goals for source selection were function, form, symbolism, aesthetics, novelty, process, nature, and climate. The most frequent goal was “form.” The results also show that the students used superficial analogy in their designs more than structural analogy, and none used metaphor or conceptual analogy. In conclusion, this high degree of students’ engagement with formal and superficial attributes eventuates that architectural education addresses the right methods of analogy in design.

The Kurdistan of Iran is one of the regions widely disregarded in the historical architectural study or architectural analysis, especially during the Islamic era. Studying the mosques of this region can lead to a deeper understanding of Iranian architecture in this era. This paper aims to introduce the characteristics of mosques by categorizing them through a typological approach. For this purpose, 27 of historical mosques in the region are studied and their main repetitive spatial units are considered as the basis of the typology. The compositional models of these mosques, from the simplest to the most complicated form regarding different combinations, are each separately introduced. Following these introductions, the relation of each type with simpler earlier types is discussed and it is maintained that all types are inter-related. The pillared shabestān is the most fundamental spatial unit of these mosques, which is the core unit in almost all examples and all types. Other units such as the iwān and rāhros are organized around it and define the first type of historical mosques in Kurdistan. The second type, which includes mosques with interior courtyards, combines the regional/traditional model of the first type with that of the mosques of central Iran. This second type of mosques includes a shabestān with hujrehs dispersed on three sides of the courtyard. These two main types include some sub-types and variations differing in the presence or the number of iwāns and rāhros. Based on these facts, a typology is suggested and is comprehensively illustrated in a table in the final section of the paper.

The iwān is one of the most prominent spaces of Iranian architecture whose background can be traced to the historical site of Hasanlu IV (ninth to eleventh centuries B.C.). The inclusion of the iwān in Iranian architecture indicates that it is an historical model and a consistent feature of Iranian architecture, maintaining its continuity over centuries and millennia. This study investigates the form of iwān and its development from pre-Islamic to Islamic eras and attempts to provide a clear understanding of its architectural structure. Knowing the form of iwān is a necessary step in assimilating both its meaning and its function. Having a historical approach studying a number of highly recognized structures from both the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, this article describes the structural features of the iwān in different eras. The analysis reveals that iwāns can be categorized in three groups: columned, vaulted, and iwāns with a tarma. These diverse forms appear in the center of one side or several sides of a building, organized on the symmetrical axis of the structures and typically combined with a courtyard in the front and a hall at the back.
Iwāns not only communicate with other spaces, but also create single- or multiple-axis designs in buildings. Iwāns appear in the form of single, dual, triple or quadruple units. The continuity of the diverse configurations of the iwān indicates the value and significance of this element throughout the tradition of Iranian architecture. The manifestation of the iwān in various architectural combinations proves it as a distinctive feature of Iranian architecture.

Model-based architecture has an emphasis on recognition and continuity of [historical] models in new constructions, and is an important approach in architecture. Leading architects such as Ardalan, Amanat and Seyhoon have such experiences in their practices. The focus on historical models aims to ensure the continuity of ideal and formal layers in contemporary architecture. Recognition of this approach is the necessity of this study, yielding to the realization of the integrity and originality of the concepts and their manifestation in form. The authors carry out an interpretive-historical study to highlight the link between model-based architecture and Iranian architecture. In doing so, important spatial principals of Iranian architecture and the reality of physical space were identified by referring to experts’ views and contemporary nationalist movements. Then, a number of projects were selected to identify the linkages between models, and their present functions and characteristics were analyzed. For further precision, The National Heritage Organization building was studied based on the research findings. It is concluded that there are two types of nationalism in Iranian contemporary architecture, focusing on either form or model of architecture. The authors conclude that the architect of The National Heritage Organization building has selected two different spatial systems (urban and architectural) and integrated them with modern architecture. In spite of the traditional façade that is truly flawless, a number of problems can be observed in space arrangement that are related to the dual approach of the architect, one of which is about the characteristics of urban space that is dynamic and vague, while the second one is about a single building that offers transparency and centralization.

Conservation and history of architecture are separate disciplines, each having their own concepts. Conservation regards the protection of a historical property and the continued life of a monument, while the history of architecture tries to identify and understand the architecture of the past. Conservation deals with historical monuments that constitute remaining evidence of architectural history. In addition to the future of these monuments, an investigation of their history is also of paramount importance in conservation. In this research, we try to understand the kind of relationship between conservation of architecture and history of architecture. This paper aims to interpret their relationship for a better understanding of architectural history in Iran. The research employs a descriptive-analytical method and logical reasoning. Data collection procedure included library research and, in some cases, field observations. Furthermore, the subject of conservation was defined in both theory and practice and the history of architecture was provided with two interpretations. The confluence of the two disciplines comes about at two major points in the profession of conservation. The first point is at the phase of preliminary studies–which mostly fall in the realm of the history of architecture–without which proper conservation is impossible. The second point occurs in the practice of conservation when signs, which were unknown earlier, are discovered during conservation works. The signs are, in fact, new evidence to be used in history of architecture. The inter-relation of a conservationist’s method of conservation and his/her approach to the history of architecture can be either that of a facilitator or obstructor. Since the mid-1960s, conservation works in Iran express a relationship between architectural conservation and architectural history. Historiographies of some monuments such as the Masjed-e Jāme‘, Ālī-Qāpū Palace, and Chehel Sotūn Palace of Isfahan, as well as the Masjed-e Jāme‘ of Ardestan were written alongside conservation works. The studies published show that findings during the practice of conservation are based on evidence and facts coming from the monument, and hence, they are quite different from historiographies that were produced in other ways.

After the spread of Islam in its early centuries, Muslims of other regions built mosques according to their vernacular architecture and geographical attributes. Baluchestan of Iran was one of the regions where Islam flourished during the early Islamic centuries, and the locals built their mosques according to their region’s geography, culture, and materials. These mosques have different characteristics in comparison with mosques of other Iranian regions, and these features are analyzed in this paper in surviving examples of the last 300 years (from the Qajar period to the present). Thus, the distinctive features that reveal valuable information regarding the formation of architecture are studied. The aim of this study is to identify the formal/spatial structure of the mosques of Baluchestan, and to formulate a typology. The research method is descriptive analytical, and data was gathered through library study and field surveying of mosques. At first, the mosques are classified into three groups: nomadic, rural, and urban, and then, they are categorized based on their spatial/formal attributes. The difference in types regards the relationship of open space, semi-open space, and masses in the spatial model of mosques. The typological study shows that the mosques of Baluchestan have three types which are: the courtyard-shabestan, courtyard-arcade-shabestan, and the double-shabestan type. Furthermore, urban mosques follow the physical/spatial model of the rural types despite more detail, newer materials, and larger areas. Findings also show that the model of courtyard-arcade-shabestan is currently the most widely used and that the construction of double-shabestan mosques is dying out. The courtyard-shabestan type is still the model of simple mosques in low population areas.