نشریه مطالعات دین، معنویت و مدیریت
پیاپی 7 (بهار و تابستان 1394)

This study aimed to investigate the historical records and backgrounds of the Islamic public administration in the management literature of Iran and the world and within meta-theoretical and philosophical justification on the one hand and forming the basis of Islamic principles based on religious references and sources on the other hand. Accordingly, following methodology of the new public service movement, efforts have been made to formulate the fundamental principles of Islamic public administration. The first part of this research paper was to analyze and explore the evolution of knowledge of this movement. In the second part meta-theoretical and philosophical reasons for the current trend of management were provided. And the final part of the present paper presented the intellectual and practical foundations of the movement.

Transactional leadership is counteractive in itself. James McGregor Burns (1978) distinguished between transactional leaders and transformational by explaining that: transactional leaders are leaders who exchange tangible rewards for the work and loyalty of followers. Transactional leaders tend to be more passive as transformational leaders demonstrate active behaviors that include providing a sense of mission. Transactional leaders are concerned with processes rather than forward-thinking ideas. These types of leaders focus on contingent reward (also known as contingent positive reinforcement) or contingent penalization (also known as contingent negative reinforcement). Contingent rewards (such as praise) are given when the set goals are accomplished on-time, ahead of time, or to keep subordinates working at a good pace at different times throughout completion. Transactional leaders use reward and punishments to gain compliance from their followers. They are extrinsic motivators that bring minimal compliance from followers. They accept goals, structure, and the culture of the existing organization. Transactional leaders tend to be directive and action-oriented.
Transactional leaders are willing to work within existing systems and negotiate to attain goals of the organization. They tend to think inside the box when solving problems. Transactional leadership is primarily passive. The behaviors most associated with this type of leadership are establishing the criteria for rewarding followers and maintaining the status quo. Within transactional leadership, there are two factors, contingent reward and management-by-exception. Contingent reward provides rewards for effort and recognizes good performance. Management-by-exception maintains the status quo, intervenes when subordinates do not meet acceptable performance levels, and initiates corrective action to improve performance.
There have been a number of criticisms leveled against transactional leadership typically proposed by management scholars e.g. Burns (1978) argued that transactional leadership practices lead followers to short-term relationships of exchange with the leader. These relationships tend toward shallow, temporary exchanges of gratification and often create resentments between the participants. Additionally, a number of scholars criticize transactional leadership theory because it utilizes a one-size-fits-all universal approach to leadership theory construction that disregards situational and contextual factors related organizational challenges. It is believed that this theory does not match the needs of today's organizations. On the other hand, the divine school of Islam expresses very delicate, elegant and precise views that demonstrate its special outlook on human, progress and elevation, the one which is neglected in mainstream schools of management.
This research paper aims at criticism of the transactional leadership and tries to propose the ground-breaking comprehensive views extracted from the Quran. The method of research was based on the intra and extra structural critique. In intra structural critique, the purpose of research is evaluation of the cohesion and the solidarity of the theory entities and the harmony between the theory contents and its principles and foundations. In extra structural critique, the theory is examined in terms of their conformity with other related theories and its compliance with Islamic assumptions.
In extra structural critique, this theory has strengthening significant points that led to the emergence of transformational theory. Meditating the Quran verses shows that the concepts suggested in this theory are also articulated in the Quran with more breadth and richness. In contemplating the Quranic verses, primarily the concepts related to the categories of transactional leadership theory were extracted and classified and next the Quran's comprehensive precise views on human, supervision and monitoring, reward and punishment are enunciated clearly and in detail.

Organizational ethics of today's world of the West, by creating harmony and consistency, developing codes of conduct, both organizational and legal, help western organizations to perform tasks with maximum efficiency and effectiveness and expedite the achievement of the goals and missions. Although the Islamic ethics and especially moral conduct of Imam Ali (A.S.) and His style in governance has necessary integrity in management of the government, society and individuals, but still it is seen that organizations do not achieve acceptable results. It seems that the thought and culture of management has not reached to a level of Islamic belief to know adherence to moral principles the best practices and strategies to achieve maximum efficiency and effectiveness yet, though achieving the virtues of morality has been recognized as the objective of the divine messengers and subsequently the formation of the government based on religious rules. Among these, the role of management and decision making ways of managers in appearing moral behaviors has been emphasized. Thus, the present study tries to enumerate norm-breakings which may occur in the management of organization considering Islamic teachings of management and especially Imam Ali (A.S.) commands and sermons. And avoiding these kinds of norm-breakings makes Iranian organizations closer to Islamic organizations.

Among the scientific trends that could find accepted position in the humanities, in contrast to the prevalent positivism, was conventionalism. Conventionalism in its branches including the organizational studies is intended to use the knowledge results of different paradigms and tries to benefit from all the available conceivable possibilities to recognize organization. The most notably example of these efforts is the Morgan's use of metaphors to understand and deal with organization problems. These metaphors are not meant to be exhaustive and he acknowledges that they can be used individually or in combination to guide our understanding of organizations and organization problems. His aim is to show how metaphor is central to our thinking about organization and management and open new possibilities. This trend regardless of the reciprocal fundamentals in different paradigms fostered a paradoxical suggestion in itself. In contrast to this approach, the present paper introduces Allameh Tabatabai's Meta-theory of Etebariat (Agreed Perceptions) as a stronger version for human sciences that can provide a growing capacity for the Morgan's Images of Organization.

As a library research based on a descriptive–analytical method, our research model has been sketched after introducing the criteria of devising this model through Delphi technique qualitatively according to Ayatullah Khamenei’s (may Allah prolong his life) views. Here we conclude that Islamic-Iranian model of development is a principally intrinsic and existential one in respect to its hardware and institution made up of its four macro-criteria and nine substantive ones. Instead, in terms of software and analysis in all fields of science, it is based on time and space subtleties, which is defined confirmatively as changing principles. Therefore, the model is unique in those affairs that religion has taken for granted, and it is multi-dimensional wherever the affairs are changing temporally and spatially. To answer the main research question (i.e. understanding the quality of Islamic Iranian model of development in terms of being monist or pluralist), we have tried to explain this bi-strata concept, which is formed as two sides of a coin under the theory of pluralist unity and united plurality in coalition correlation fuzzy logic.

Investigation and explanation of criteria for selection and evaluation of manager's performances and functions and also assessment of their merits in the light of Imam Ali (A.S) teachings and sermons
This research is a review descriptive one using library method of study and has been categorized and compiled by citing various accounts of Nahjolbalagheh and related websites.
Findings: In this paper, by studying Imam Ali (A.S) sermons, letters, sayings and his testament manager's merits and virtues were extracted. Of these, the following can be enumerated: justice, knowledge, good policy, knowing the expertise of planning, decisiveness, gentleness and moderateness, happiness and freshness, lawfulness, compromise, the ability for consultation and negotiation, eloquence and persuasiveness, real attraction and repulsion, obedience, temperance and moderation.
Muslim society can increase its effectiveness and productivity by resorting to Imam Ali (A.S.) teachings and sermons in all areas of selection and appointment of managers and evaluation of their performances. On the other hand, proper management criteria in Islamic system of governance can be divided into three fields: knowledge, expertise and morality.

Spiritual intellect involves a collection of abilities and capacities that uses spiritual sources to improve people’s compatibility, conformity and satisfaction and provides a better life. This research paper aims at examination of the relationship between spiritual intellect and interactive skills by investigating the opinions of Isfahan University students. This research was practical and its method was a kind of descriptive survey and its statistical population was comprised of higher education students at Humanities department of Isfahan University. The stratified random sampling is implemented to evaluate the sample volume and 305 students were selected according to Kookran Formula. The research instruments were two researcher-made questionnaires including spiritual intellect and interactive skills. The validity of their contents was confirmed by experts and their reliabilities were assessed 85 and 96 respectively via Cronbach’s alpha test. Findings show that there are significant relationships between thinking and interactive skills, personal conceptualization and interactive skills, transcendental consciousness and interactive skills and improvement of self-consciousness and interactive skills.