Journal of Herbmed Pharmacology
Volume:6 Issue: 3, Jul 2017

Plants and plant parts are frequently being used due to their medicinal properties, flavour or fragrance. The application of herbal medicines in the treatment/management of several diseases is as old as mankind. Nevertheless, majority of the world’s population solely depends on herbal medicines for the treatment and/or management of health-related issues. Statistics have revealed that approximately four billion people worldwide rely on plants as source of therapy (1). This figure demonstrates that, herbal medicines have metamorphosed to a widely accepted therapy for diver’s ailments. Apart from being widely accepted, herbal medicines have also proven to be the bedrock of modern medicine. My research associates and I have previously published a paper to highlight the significance of herbal plants to new drug discovery (2). The use of herbal medicines in the future years appears to be in doubt, even though statistics have unveiled the wide acceptance of them. This is due to the threats currently being posed by deforestation. In fact, deforestation poses a clear threat to the future of herbal medicines, as statistics by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) indicated that about 53 000 square miles of tropical forests each year during the 1980’s were destroyed. This statistic has by far increased in recent years and led to the postulation that if nothing is done to arrest the current high deforestation rate; the world’s rainforest may rapidly disappear (3). A conservative estimate has recently disclosed that there are about 250 000 species of higher plants in the world, with only a relatively small proportion of them being currently used for medicinal purposes (4). However, it is uncertain how many of the medicinal plants will still be in existence in years to come. This is because quite a number of them may likely go into extinction, majorly due to deforestation. The effect it may elicit to global health cannot be fathomed; as it will leave majority of the world’s population (who can’t access modern treatment) no other option than to live with their ailments. Seeing that herbal plants are a major source for new drug discovery, it will also significantly decrease the rate of new drug discovery and development. In conclusion, the best way to preserve herbal medicine practice is for all (i.e., governments, researchers, economists, farmers etc) to initiate and support programs aimed at reducing deforestation to the barest minimum.

Vernonia amygdalina Del. has been traditionally used in relieving pain and inflammatory conditions as well as in treatment of feverish conditions by local people of the North-east Nigeria. Consequently this study aims at evaluating the phytochemical content, antipyretic and analgesic properties of V. amygdalina (biter leaf).
The leaf of V. amygdalina was soxhlet extracted with ethanol and sequentially partitioned using solvent of different polarities. Phytochemical test was conducted to ascertain the secondary metabolites present in the extract using standard procedures. Acute toxicity (LD50) of the extract on laboratory rats was estimated by following protocols of Lorke. The antinociceptive activity of the ethanolic extract was also evaluated using acetic acid induced pain and hot plate method.
The results revealed the presence of tannins, phlobatannins, saponins, carbohydrates, cardioactive glycoside, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids and terpenes. Anthraquinones were absent in the extract. The intraperitoneal LD50 was found to be 3721 mg/kg. On administration of 5000 mg/kg dose of the extract via oral route, there was no dead. The extract demonstrated significant antinociceptive activities as 36.0 ± 0.81, 43.8 ± 0.11 and 52.8±0.37 (Mean number of writhings) respectively for the doses 600, 400 and 200 mg/kg i.p.) as compared to the control (60.0 ± 0.11). High dose of 400 mg/kg significantly reduced rectal temperature (P These results demonstrated the medicinal potentiality of V. amygdalina and might be used as analgesic, and antipyretic agent. Phytochemicals found in such as flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids and steroids seem to be implicated in having such pharmacological activities.

Ketamine is applied to induce symptoms of schizophrenia in animal models. Besides the nervous system, ketamine also affects male lower genitourinary tracts. The present study evaluated the effects of carvacrol on antioxidant enzymes and examined the histopathologic changes in the testes of ketamine induced schizophrenic mice.
A total of 48 male mice were treated with 25 mg/kg ketamine or saline for a period of 14 days. Between the 8th and 14th days, the animals received carvacrol (25 and 50 mg/kg) or saline. At the end of the experiment, blood samples were taken to measure luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and testosterone; the testes were also collected for biochemical and histopathological evaluations.
The results indicated that induction of schizophrenia by ketamine led to an oxidative stress by increasing malondialdehyde (MDA) level (P The present study showed that ketamine causes oxidative stress and damage in testicular tissues and co-administration with carvacrol prevents the harmful effects of ketamine.

In most parts of Africa, Ximenia americana is used in folklore to treat various disorders such as oedema, pain, fever, helminthiasis, diarrhoea, burns among other diseases. This study tested the antipyretic activities of dichloromethane-methanolic (DCM-MeOH) stem bark and leaf extracts of X. americana in rats. Qualitative phytochemical screening was also done to evaluate the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, phenolics and terpenoids in the extract.
The plant materials were collected from Mbeere North sub-county, Embu county, Kenya. Methanol and dichloromethane in the ratio of 1:1 was used to extract the active compounds. Two to three months old male Wister rats were employed for the antipyretic studies. Animals were divided into six groups of five rats each: normal, negative, reference and three experimental groups (50, 100 and 150 mg/kg body weight). Pyrexia was induced experimentally using turpentine. The experimental groups were treated with predetermined dose quantities of prepared extracts. Aspirin was used as the reference drug. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
The extracts from the leaves lowered rectal temperature by 0.45% to 2.11% while the stem bark extracts lowered rectal temperature in the range of 0.71% to 2.13%. Aspirin lowered the rectal temperature in the range of 0.74% and 1.67%. Qualitative phytochemical screening showed presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, phenolics and terpenoids in the extract.
DCM-MeOH leaf and stem bark extracts of X. americana is effective in management of fever and therefore it can be explored as a possible bio-resource in the development of herbal antipyretic medicines.

Allium paradoxum is a perennial herb in northern Iran, especially in Mazandaran province. It is locally called “Alezi” and in addition to using as raw vegetable, is also used in the preparation of regional foods. This study was aimed to investigate the main phenolic constituents of the plant.
Bulbs of the plant were extracted respectively by hexane, chloroform, chloroform-methanol (9-1) and methanol in a stepwise method with increasing solvent polarity. Methanol extract was then partitioned between water and butanol. Chloroform-methanol and butanol extract constituents were isolated and purified by column chromatography and HPLC. Chemical structure of the compounds was elucidated unambiguously by spectroscopic methods, including 1D and 2D NMR and MS spectroscopy.
Phytochemical investigation of A. paradoxum led to the isolation of two main phenolic compounds, a flavonoid glycoside and a tyrosol derivative. The isolated compounds were identified as kaempeferol-3-O-glucoside (1) (Astragalin) and 2-methoxy-2-(4’-hydroxyphenyl) ethanol (2-Methoxy tyrosol) (2).
Isolation and identification of astragalin and 2-methoxy tyrosol from A. paradoxum is reported for the first time in this study and provide a chemical basis for the explanation of pharmacological and biological activities attributed to the plant.

In general, primary or secondary metabolites derived from medicinal plant products might be responsible for stimulating or suppressing the immune system against specific protein antigens. The objective of this study was to evaluate the adjuvant potential of aqueous leaves extract of Azadirachta indica, Butea frondosa and Ficus religiosa against Swine flu vaccine antigen.
In this study, our group evaluated the antibody (IgG) titre of Swine flu vaccine antigen (2 μg/mL) using variable doses (0.625–5 mg) of aqueous leaves extract of A. indica, B. frondosa and F. religiosa. In addition, Swiss mice were immunized subcutaneously (100 μL) on day 0 with Swine flu vaccine antigen (1:1000 dilution). Splenocytes were collected on day 7 and cultured with variable doses of aqueous leaves extract of A. indica, B. frondosa and F. religiosa pertaining to determine the total cellular content and splenocyte proliferation (Swine flu vaccine; Ovalbumin, OVA and Con A) assay. In addition, estimation of Th1 (IFN-gamma and TNF alpha) cytokines in cell culture supernatant containing swine flu vaccine antigen along with aqueous leaves extract were measured.
Aqueous leaves extract of A. indica, B. frondosa and F. religiosa showed anti-Swine flu titre at higher doses. In ex vivo animal model studies these three medicinal plants in the form of aqueous leaves extract enhanced total cellular content at higher doses but increased in splenocyte proliferation (Swine flu vaccine, OVA and Con A) assay at lower doses. Similarly, there was enhancement in Th1 cytokines (IFN-gamma, TNF alpha) with respect to swine flu vaccine antigen containing aqueous extract at lower doses as compared to control group.
Aqueous leaves extract of A. indica, B. frondosa and F. religiosa showed adjuvant activity against Swine flu vaccine antigen and might be used in manufacturing active adjuvant for vaccine antigen.

Gout is a chronic metabolic disease in which xanthine oxidase plays a crucial role. Many natural compounds such as various flavonoids have been reported to have inhibitory effect on xanthine oxidase. In this study we aimed to screen hydromethanol extracts of various plants for their anti-xanthine oxidase activity to find safer and cheaper medicines in prevention and control of related diseases.
The xanthine oxidase activity was measured by spectrophotometric method at 290 nm. Kinetic study of the enzyme was performed in presence and absence of the extracts.
Among sixty hydromathanolic (70% methanol) extracts, Quercus infectoria and Mentha longifolia showed more than 70% inhibitory effect on xanthine oxidase. M. longifolia showed competitive inhibition and Q. infectoria showed non-competitive inhibition by double-reciprocal Lineweaver-Burk plot analysis. The Km value of xanthine for xanthine oxidase was 1.81 mM and Vmax value was 2.01 mM min-1.
The data suggest that these plants might be good candidates for treatment of gout disease.

Streptococcus mutans is the most common cause of tooth decay. Parabens, and other commonly used as anti-Streptococcus agents in toothpaste industry have numerous side effects such as discoloration of teeth. Thymus vulgaris essential oil has profound antimicrobial activity against a wide range of species. The aim of present study was the aim of the present study was to formulate and evaluate the physicochemical properties of a kind of toothpaste formulated with Thymus vulgaris essential oil. Thyme oil components were also analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS).
Toothpaste was formulated in forms of gel and opaque and Thyme essence was added to it. The formulation was evaluated in terms of stability in different temperatures, pH, consistency, uniformity, taste, smell, and compatibility with special packaging for toothpaste at three temperatures. Profilometry was used to determine abrasivity. The rate of contaminations with lead and arsenic was determined by atomic absorption. The amount of fluoride was measured by potentiometry.
Forty-one different components, representing 99.64% of the total oil were identified in essential oil. Addition of thyme essence to formulation had no deleterious effect in stability, consistency, taste and smell. The pH of opaque and gel formulations was 7.02 and 7.45, respectively. The abrasiveness of opaque and gel formulations was in standard ranges. The fluoride content was 1000 ppm. Lead and arsenic were not detected at all.
Formulation of toothpaste with T. vulgaris essential oil was acceptable and might be considered as a desirable herbal toothpaste.

About 50% of women are diagnosed with an episode of vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) during first 25 years of their lives. Candida glabrata is considered the second most prevalent non-C. albicans species associated with VVC. In this study, we examined the antifungal effect of a medicinal plant, Allium jesdianum, as a natural therapeutic agent against fluconazole-susceptible and -resistant human vaginal C. glabrata isolates, collected from two groups of volunteers; healthy women and women with VVC.
An aqueous-ethanolic extract of A. jesdianum was prepared by maceration method. Vaginal specimens were collected from 28 women diagnosed with VVC and eight healthy subjects. The specimens were cultured using fungal-specific media in optimum conditions. The antifungal susceptibility of clinical isolates of C. glabrata to the plant extract and fluconazole was evaluated according to the standard protocols.
Candida glabrata was found to be the major cause of vaginal infection among 15.2% of women with VVC. We could identify the Candida spp. yeasts that colonized the vagina of 35% of healthy women while 19% of the isolated yeasts strains were detected as C. glabrata. Moreover, 7.1% of isolates obtained from VVC-patients were fluconazole resistant. The results showed the antifungal effect of A. jesdianum against all fluconazole resistant and susceptible C. glabrata vaginal isolates. The MIC90 of aqueous-ethanol (A-EtOH) extract of A. jesdianum against C. glabrata isolates from both VVC-patients and healthy women was 3 mg/mL.
Our results showed the promising antifungal efficacy of aqueous-ethanolic extract of A. jesdianum. A. jesdianum extract might be used as an alternative choice to treat the VVC infections caused by fluconazole resistant Candida spp.