نشریه پژوهشهای معرفت شناختی
سال ششم شماره 1 (پیاپی 13، بهار و تابستان 1396)

Experience and induction are of the basic issues of contemporary philosophy of science that have been considered by Ibn Sina and Popper’s philosophies. Ibn Sina by referring to some principles including essential derivation, the accidental rule and the hidden syllogism, tries to separate experience from induction, and consider for experience a kind of conditioned certainty and universality. Moreover, his division of induction into complete and incomplete ones has its specific significance. Popper, by considering the problem of impossibility to obtain universal inferences through induction, tries to resolve the problem of induction by introducing the principle of transference indicating equality of logical approaching and the principality of psychology. He, then, through theory of Falsification, renders a universal and empirical criterion for testing empirical theories. Popper and Ibn Sina’s resemblance is their critical approach to the problems of experience and induction by struggling for explaining their epistemic aspects in sciences and practical human life. But finally although they both have not restricted scientific method to experience and induction, but some differences can be found among them. Popper, while, has regarded the experience as a criterion for separating science from non-science, but does not consider any authentic base for it. Ibn Sina, however, believes that experience is one of self evidences which played an effective role in growth of human knowledge. In this paper, by comparative explaining and analyzing Ibn Sina and Popper’s viewpoints concerning induction and experience, has been tried to show merits and efficacies of Ibn Sina’s points of view.

This paper has attempted to answer the question: what is the relationship between ideal and religious knowledge? In order to obtain this aim, Mulla Sadra's various and scattered discussions are integrated about knowledge, knower and known in a proper framework. By this approach In addition to the new details have been represented in Mulla Sadra's thought, we encounter a new doctrine which is resulted in study of ideal knowledge, knower and known. It seems that Mulla Sadra by this discussion has wanted to make the philosophical knowledge close to the religious knowledge, and finally he believed that the both of them are two sides of one reality which can lead to conclude the essence of religion is nothing but wisdom and the rest served merely as a shell to protect this precious core.

Islamic philosophers, particularly, Peripatetic, on the basis of relation between the soul and the body and their essence, have regarded the perception as the act of the soul, not of the body. Accordingly, the soul's knowledge to the body is the acquired knowledge. However, Mulla Sadra maintains that the soul's knowledge to the body is like a self-consciousness which should be considered as knowledge by presence. He holds that the body is not only the object of the soul's knowledge by presence and its self-consciousness, but also it contributes to all levels of perception; so far once the body has been faced a disorder, every level of perception, even the rational one, will be subjected to change. In this paper, firstly, Sadra’s doctrine on the types of body will be explained, and then we will deal with the problem of soul's knowledge to the body and the role of body in perception. Secondly, we will come to the conclusion that the body is the one stage of the soul's various levels, not a substance separated from it. This allows us to assert that the role and the contribution of the body in perception, though not the same as that of the soul in perception, it is not less than that; and one detaches from the idea that the soul plays the role in perception solely. In fact, Sadra’s knowledge of the soul is not merely a suvey of the soul; it is also an explanation of the human essence which is not plausible without paying attention to corporeal dimension of human being.

Recently, the wide reflective equilibrium can be considered consistent with the wide moral coherentism and seen to be more reliable than the narrow moral coherency in the ethics, since to justify the moral beliefs, in addition of coherency with the other ethical beliefs, they should be coherent to the related immoral beliefs such as psychological, biological, sociological and anthropological achievements. It is important that this level of coherency faced the challenges and has not provided better explanation than the fundamentalism to justify moral belief. In this article, after explaining the moral coherentism and wide reflective equilibrium, the general approach to the moral coherencies will be criticized. Finally, it will be clear that even if assumed that a moral belief in a wide coherency is justified, but this belief is justified only neglectfully, that which is meant that the agent has no epistemic reasons to accept or reject that propositions and therefore they cannot be justified epistemologically.

Rapid changing, the enhance of uncertainty and the complicated environmental conditions in the present century led to avoiding taken-for-granted linear change in planning and decision-making in various parameters and tending to use futures studies in different levels and areas instead. However, studies related to the future were always faced the cognitive challenges. In this study, the theory of Wendell Bell in cognitive futures studies, as one of the most famous theories in the area, was critically investigated. Then, the rationality of strategic foresight as a pragmatic approach to the future studies was analyzed. IN other words, the rationality of proposition that extracted from the future study by strategic foresight approach was investigated. Besides recognizing the most influential weaknesses of his theory, the findings of the research revealed that “the problem-solving”, “accuracy in predicting”, “balance between issues”, “simplicity”, “expansion”, and “compatibility” along with “being value-oriented” are criteria which introduce strategic foresight as a rational and wise approach which can significantly help long-term studies related to the future. Hence, to develop and apply the strategic foresight, the suggestions are provided for the academic researchers, industrial, and administered authorities.

Human’s knowledge by presence to himself is the foundation of his presence in his sight and direct intuition of the being. Mulla Sadra has rescued human being from the insurmountable gap of contradiction between subject and object relying on the self as a being which identifies the being and knowledge. The mankind by his presence finds his existence connected to the external world. Finding the self in the midst of creatures and having a specific relation with the world means being in the world. Heidegger also raises the issue of presence and being in the world regarding human’s specific relation with the world and his ability to interpret and evaluate the existence and being beyond-existence. Therefore, it can be said that human’s presence in itself is the basis of his being in the world. By this consideration, there are many similarities between Sadra and Heidegger’s doctrine.