پژوهشنامه ادیان
سال پنجم شماره 1 (پیاپی 9، بهار و تابستان 1390)

Tolerance and peaceful coexistence with adherents of other religions is one of the conspicuous features of Indian culture. Meditating on the inner core of the existence and appreciating the true nature of religion leads to religious tolerance, therefore Hindu mystics and sages and Muslim Sufis of India were the leading figures of this transcendent behavior. Moreover, most of the Mongol kings of India tried to establish religious tolerance, Akbar (1542-1605), emperor of India in the Timurid, or Mughal, dynasty is the best example of this policy and conduct. In the modern age, Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) and his movement, known as Brahmo Samaj, again insisted on and promoted the idea of religious tolerance. In fact the concept of tolerance in the teachings of Abu al-Kalām Āzād (1888-1958) is the continuation of the same tradition which reflected in the mind of a prominent Muslim scholar.

Considering the influence of the ancient history on the Persian literature, the author intends to compare the literary features of three prominent characters− Zoroaster, Mani, and Mazdak− in the Persian poetry. So after tracking them in the Persian poetry texts and surveying the opinions of the poets in regard to these three reputable persons; we understand that Zoroaster is more often mentioned in these texts, however in negative manner and was often reproached by poets. Moreover the poets have noted the artistic aspects and beautifying purports of Mani, without considering his message. Mazdak also has been constantly neglected and intensely reproached by poets. Among the reasons of disregarding of Persian poetry for these three great characters, we could refer to the political and religious reasons. Moreover the poets’ lack of knowledge about ancient people as well as the penetration of Islam in Iran and Muslims’ rejection of these religions is other reasons. It seems that the extreme attention to the artistic aspects of Mani is due to his esoteric and mysterious beliefs.

The appearance of Mazdak and his announcement was in Kawad’s (488-531) time who at first converted to Mazdakism, but after a temporarily overthrow, abandoned Mazdak and his followers. It seems that in 528 or 529 C.E. many of Mazdakites were killed by Khosrow Anushiravan under the command of Kawad. After Mazdak his followers, known as Mazdakeans, did not lose their faith in Mazdak and his teachings so tried to spread his teachings in a hidden manner. Teachings of Mazdak, due to their similarities with some doctrines of Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism and even Zurvanism, often were ascribed to these religions. Mazdakism, on the one hand, is a dualistic religion which believes in two origins eternally different and independent and, on the other, speaks about an exalted God.

Love is a divine stage. God attributed love to himself and called himself the Loving (wadud). He loved himself at first then loved to observe himself in others, so created the universe in His own form. He saw the universe and loved it. Since God created the universe in His own form, universe is beautiful and God loves beauty. If there was no love, the Loving and the All-merciful God were not recognized. Love in its absoluteness exists in all seen and unseen creatures. The Loving’s first manifestation is the theophany of the Divine Essence for Itself, in the images of all the fixed entities (al-a‘yān al-thābita) in the Divine Knowledge. By the second manifestation the immutable entities appeared in the outward world. So every thing were emanated by love. Since the universe was manifested by the Breath of the All-merciful, the essence of this Breath is love. God created the universe by His breath. He created it and made Himself recognized because if He was not recognized His names and attributes were not manifested and the universe remained in nonexistence (‘adam). Therefore, God’s love of the recognition of his names and attributes is the cause of creation.

Buddhist monasticism (Sangha) like other monastic orders has its own rituals and communal ceremonies. However, the word ritual maybe leads to misunderstanding, because Buddha himself intensely criticized ritualism. Sangha’s ceremonies are formalized, but purely functional. They fashioned in fact to review the Acts of the Sangha. They are to this day carried out without ritual elaboration. Two of these ceremonies are crucial: the higher ordination (upasampadā) and the communal rehearsal of the pātimokkha or the rite of confession. Every fortnight, on the uposatha days of the new and full moons, the monks are enjoined to gather to recite some parts of Vinaya and by so doing, they proclaim their loyalty to the Sangha and its rules.

Symbol is one of the means that leads to cognition and is the most fundamental way of expressing the ideas which without symbolism they cannot be revealed. Therefore, symbols fulfill a prominent function in the area of religious ideas. Religious traditions are full of myths and in this sphere only the symbolic language could be useful. In other words, symbol is the language of the myth. Among the religious symbols Height is one that has played an important role from the primitive age until now. It has always been identified with a kind of value that connects human’s mind to superiority, transcendence and divinity. This article firstly tries to survey the concept of symbol and symbolism and then the function of it in the area of religion and myth. Finally it studies the symbol of Height and its major manifestations such as sky and mountain.

Tantra is one of the ancient cults that has influenced Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Feminine aspect is one of the most important characteristics of Tantrism which, for example, is presented in the goddess Śakti and her manifestations such as Kālī. In this respect one can allude to feminine aspects in Tantric doctrines about cosmology, theology and anthropology (mystic body and the subjects related to it, such as Cakra and Kundalinī) and Tantric rituals such as sexual intercourse (Maithuna) and sacrifice (Yajña) which have been explained in some scriptures like Tantras and Kāmasūtra. Lack of academic studies on doctrines of Tantra and the role of feminine aspects in this cult, on the one hand, and enthusiasm of learning about mystical and esoteric doctrines of Tantrism which could lead to misunderstanding, on the other, can explain the necessity of studying Tantrism. Therefore, this article tries to survey the doctrines of Tantrism and the role of feminine aspects in this cult.