نشریه هستی و شناخت (نامه مفید)
سال چهارم شماره 1 (پیاپی 7، بهار و تابستان 1396)

The purpose of this article is to clarify the meaning/s of φύσις (nature) in Early Greek Thought by examining and analyzing its usages or the extant evidence in ancient Greek literature – whether it is philosophical or not. The importance of finding the meaning of words and the influences which it could have on avoiding making fallacies and fundamental misunderstandings is not trivial. Especially, when we deal with fragments, it can bring us nearer to the author/writer’s real intention. First, I briefly discuss the different interpretations which attribute a single meaning to φύσις. Then, based on primary sources, I show the semantic scope of φύσις and its several possible meanings. Here, I try to exactly translate and interpret the most important evidence of the usage of φύσις, considering their contexts. Finally, I reject that approach which attributes a single or limited meaning to φύσις.

Genus-differentia definition (which tries to give essence of a term) involves a wide range of logical definitions. Essentials, which refer to terms related to essence, (and include perfect and imperfect ones), can be seen not only in genus-differentia definitions but also in description kind (also perfect and imperfect) and others that will be mentioned in this paper. Efficiency of genus-differentia definition depends on accepting presupposed terms which are borrowed from philosophy or to be demonstrated upon it. After stating a variety of definitions from logical point of view, in this paper, the presupposed terms has been overviewed and genus-differentia definition has been criticized.

Through his last writing, A Book on the Certainty, Wittgenstein analyzes the concept of knowledge. He disagrees with the Moor’s idea that says “I know this is a hand.” From Wittgenstein’s viewpoint, the concept of knowledge has its own conditions and qualifications; without them the knowledge is not reachable. Therefore, since the propositions indicated by Moor miss those qualifications, the concept of knowledge based on those propositions is incorrect and meaningless. For Wittgenstein, the inability to apply the concept of knowledge for those propositions does not bring about uncertainty, fault or ignorance, but it secures the notion of certainty. Those prepositions, besides many experimental prepositions, illustrate our world- image. Our world- image is the basis of our certain knowledge which is not in the form of the concept of theoretical knowledge but it is in the form of the concept of practical knowledge. Consequently, not only doubt and uncertainty do not belong to the realm of the world- image, but also based on this form of certain concept the concept of uncertainty can have a meaning.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty is one of the most influential French phenomenologists of the twentieth century. In his phenomenology, he seeks to achieve the essence of human sensory perception. In his phenomenology, human is the embodied subject that lives with other subjects in the world. The present study, based on Maurice Merleau-Ponty's view, explores the phenomenology of cyberspace. According to Maurice Merleau-Ponty 's phenomenology, the embodied subject is devoted to sensory perception in cyberspace and receives the meanings from this modern world. There is also the possibility of mutual understanding through cyberspace for subjects present in virtual relationships. For example, suffering from pain in the Maurice Merleau-Ponty 's view is a similar feature between all the body subjects. Therefore, embodied subjects can see and feel empathy with him through watching a movie and a photo, and from someone who has been introduced to him through cyberspace. Although the expansion of human relationships and modern tools has led to some of the limitations of the lives of humans before the emergence of modern technologies, but the embodied subject in the modern world, based on the Merleau-Ponty's viewpoint, remains in the fence of time and place. Because human is an embodied subject and must accept the limitations of having body in the modern world. According to Merleau-Ponty's view, the embodied subject is in the fence of its communication network with other subjects, and this is a barrier against uninterrupted freedom for the present human being.

Muslim theologians generally believe that the first duty of a man is reflecting on God. Ash'ari theologians think that this duty has been tradition and driven from Qur'anic verses and hadiths and Ijma' (consensus), but in Mu'tazilites theologians' view, this duty is based on reason and they adduced two arguments in this regard; first, “probable harm” and second, “necessity gratitude to the Blessing Giver”. This paper claims that arguments of both parties are incomplete, and the first duty of man, is "self knowledge" not" knowing God or theology ". It is a rational duty because that is reasonable to achieve perfection and prosperity, self-Knowledge is essential, of course, in self-knowledge; in next steps knowing other fundamental issues come in turn. It is known that theologian is claimer and if he fails to prove its claim, the claim of atheist will necessarily be proved but according to the second argument all human are accounted a claimer and every party has to represent its explanation regarding its claim and incapability of one party in proving its claim would not mean that other party's claim to be proven.

From the beginning of the Manichaean and Mazdaki movement and the formation of a peasant class as well as the migration of Nestorian Christians to the Sassanid Empire, one can follow the tensions of the ideological networks with the ruling politics and economy. After the ups and downs, these movements led to the Arabic translation movement in the second century AD. The advent of Islam led to the disappearance of the impenetrable cassettes of the Sassanid community, and this contributed greatly to the development of science and the books were transmitted from the corners of the royal treasuries to the libraries. This movement was by no means neutral, and the movements and classes involved in it led to the purposive guidance and ultimately conduction of a particular type of philosophy add Islamic sciences. From schools that were incompatible with the ruling politics, called heretics, to the school of Logical philosophy of Baghdad and the Isma`ilist philosophy all rooted in a class-dominated tension. Eventually, it was Farabi who presented all these movement in a single structure known as Islamic Philosophy.