نشریه پژوهش های زبان شناسی
سال پانزدهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 28، بهار و تابستان 1402)

Having been endowed with forms and meanings different from other words in a language as well as other special structural features such as reduplicative structure, onomatopoeic words are regarded as linguistic universals, widely involved in the formation and derivation of new onomatopoeic words. Examining the structure of onomatopoeic words and mulling over their semantic properties in Russian and Persian languages, this study found that the general process of onomatopoeic words’ derivation is different in the two languages. Moreover, this study indicated that typological differences between Russian, as an inflectional and agglutinative language, and Persian, as an analytical and agglutinative language, play pivotal roles in the construction of different patterns as well as different word-formation processes, governing the formation of onomatopoeic words. Moreover, the study of semantic aspects of word-formation processes illustrated that this class of words have a category-building role in Russian. This is while in Persian onomatopoeic words, in addition to the primary onomatopoeic and categorical meanings, another semantic layer including certain aspects such as plurality, diversity, hypocorism, and continuance is added to the derived onomatopoeic words.

The Muckbang discourse, as digital commensality, depicts the preparation of food (Cookbang) or eating food (Muckbang) by an influencer in the presence of other users. This trend is considered as a tool for spreading Korean food tradition as an essential part of the Hallyu or "Korean wave." Through indirect means as well as the interaction of influencers with social network users, the Korean wave of Hallyu has been recontextualized in Iran in its own particular way. In this connection, as it concerns Iranian brand values, discovering the implicit levels of meaning-making in Muckbang or the Korean wave of Hallyu in Iran requires adopting and applying an interpretive multidisciplinary approach. The research corpus consists of all Muckbang-cookbangs that were purposefully selected by considering the meaning-making mechanisms of food culture system. Employing an integrated model for data analyses, the results indicated that the cultural codes of food in Iranian Muckbang-cookbang discourse represents the value of food brands through and in terms of the type of food, the style of eating and preparing. The results suggest that concerning food type, the Muckbang discourse of native Iranians particularly includes the consumption of unpleasant food, flavor-enhanced food, and crunchy and fresh food. Besides, Iranian Muckbang discourse also includes the consumption of some non-native foods such as squid, crabs, and calamari. The examination of written interactions revealed that some users and followers encouraged other users to accept the Hallyu wave by weakening the local cultural structures and enriching the elements of the global Hallyu wave. This is while another group of users avoided accepting this trend by maintaining and preserving the local traditional elements. In Muckbang discourse, the eating style often stimulates the senses of users with amplified sounds, challenging them to overeat, binging, and eating alone or in pairs. Depending on the type of eating, Iranian Muckbangs include eating with amplified sound, overeating, and fast eating challenges, often performed in person or in pairs. Finally, Cookbang discourse in Iran includes selecting and preparing food from foreign countries, especially East Asia, depending on their origins, communicating current and modern fast food in line with McDonald's global trends, and finally recontextualizing the recipes of traditional Iranian foods based on historical narratives.

Sonority and its various aspects, in addition to affecting the structure of a syllable can trigger somephonological and morphophonological processes.The foundation of these sonority-based processes is that the sonority scale of all the phonemes should be determined in a hierarchical order.To achieve this primary goal, a sonority hierarchical model of Persian phonemes was proposed according to the theoretical foundations previously clarified about sonority,.Then, all the 23 Persian consonants were used in the onset and coda position of the CVC syllable. The 6 vowels of this language were also used in this syllable.In the next step, all the data were put in carrier sentences, then read and recorded three times by 10 monolingual native Persian speakers.Since according to Parker (2008), there is a direct relationship between intensity and sonority, so the intensity of all phonemes was measured in Praat software (version 6.1.42). Following that, through Pearson's correlation coefficient, the relationship between the intensity and sonority scale proposed in the hypothesis was calculated. In doing so, the calculations were done for individual phonemes and phonemic classes and the results were 0.90 and 0.91 respectively and the hypothesis of the research was statistically attested. Finally the hierarchical sonority model of Persian phonemes was presented.Moreover, the comparison of this model with the model suggested by Parker (2008) showed that it is completely consistent with it, and it can be claimed that Parker's model (2008) is also confirmed in Persian.

In rhythmic typology, languages are categorized into stress-timed and syllable-timed types. Earlier studies have highlighted the isochrony of interstress intervals and syllables in stress-timed and syllable-timed languages, respectively. Recent studies suggest that rhythm type depends on the characteristics of the phonological system of each language. Lexically marked stress, robust correlates of stress, stress-sensitive segmental rules, and complex syllable structures are the characteristics of stress-timed languages. On the other hand, the characteristic properties of syllable-timed languages are non-lexical stress, relatively weak correlates of stress, non-application of stress-sensitive segmental rules, and simple syllable structures. The present article investigated these phonological properties in Persian. Persian has been classified as a syllable-timed language. We hypothesized that the rhythmic type of Persian is the direct consequence of its phonological properties. Evidence shows that stress plays a weak role in Persian phonology. Hence, it seems to belong to the type of syllable-timed languages.

Languages are classified into syllable-timed or stress-timed types based on rhythm. In the earliest studies in the field of rhythmic patterns (Pike, 1945; Abercrombie, 1967), the term ‘stress-timed’ referred to languages in which stress tended to be repeated at approximately the same time intervals, and as a result, the number of intervening unstressed syllables varied. In contrast, in syllable-timed languages, all syllables were considered to have approximately equal duration and the length of intervals between stressed syllables depended on their number (Dauer, 1983).
Later studies (Eriksson, 1991; Mairano, 2011) challenged the concept of "isochrony" and argued that rhythm has its roots in the phonological properties of languages (Donovan & Darwin, 1979; Lehiste, 1979). The lexical status of stress (Wagner, 2008: 115; Nishihara & van de Weijer, 2011), the application of stress-sensitive phonological rules with an emphasis on vowel reduction (Baltazani, 2007: 41; Nishihara & van de Weijer, 2011: 157), and the complexity of syllable structure (Wagner, 2008: 115; 24; Nishihara & van de Weijer, 2011: 158) were introduced as the phonological features of stress-timed versus syllable-timed languages.
In the present study, the rhythmic type of Persian is investigated based on the phonological structure of this language. According to Haghshenas (1978: 129), Persian is a syllable-timed language, the quality which arises from the approximate equalization of all short syllables, on the one hand, and all the medium and long syllables, on the other. Having measured the normalized index of Persian vocalic intervals, Buban (2007) indicated that Persian shows a tendency towards the syllable-timed type.

This study is descriptive-analytic in nature and the discussion in this paper is based on previous research on Persian and rhythmic typology. Phonological characteristics of stress-timed versus syllable-timed languages including the status of lexical stress, phonetic correlates of stress, sensitivity of segmental rules to stress/syllable structure, and syllable complexity were used to determine the rhythmic type of Persian. Since English is known as a prototypical stress-timed language, the rhythmic type of Persian is discussed in comparison with this language. 

The location of stress is fixed and falls on the last syllable of most grammatical categories (Samei, 1995: 19) in Persian. Due to its predictablility, lexical stress is not marked in the lexicon. In contrast, lexical stress is sensitive to syllable weight, grammatical category, morphological structure, and the origin of the word in English. Nevertheless, due to its relative predictability, stress is not marked in the lexicon for many words in this language.
In languages in which stress bears a high functional load, stress is represented by more robust phonetic correlates (Auer, 1991: 296; Mairano, 2011: 71). In fixed-stress languages, weaker acoustic correlates are utilized to mark the prominence of stressed syllables (Peperkamp & Dupoux, 2002). Sadeghi (2018: 71) has reported duration to be the sole acoustic correlate of Persian lexical stress. The robustness of this cue is not as high as that of a stress-timed language like English in which multiple correlates are employed to highlight stressed syllables over unstressed ones.
Persian has no stress-sensitive phonological rule. The observed stress-sensitive vowel reduction (Gharaati, 2010; Alinejad, 2012) is only acoustic with no phonological consequences. In contrast, English has a number stress-sensitive rules, including vowel reduction in unstressed positions and the aspiration of voiceless stops at the beginning of stressed syllables.
As a language shifts from stress-timed to syllable-timed, the ratio of simpler syllable structures increases. Moreover, in syllable-timed languages, vowel insertion and liaison rules apply to parse heavy syllables into light ones. In Persian, with a simple structure (Alamolhoda, 2000), the number of consonants between two vowels fluctuates between one and three. There is also a strict limit on the number of consonants in onset or coda positions. Analyzing the onset consonant clusters of English shows that as the stress shifts toward the end of the word, the number of onsetless words increases and, in most cases, consonant clusters are present in stressed syllables (Orzechowska, Mołczanow & Jankowski, 2019).
Jun (2005), Abolhasanizadeh, Bijankhan & Gussenhoven (2012: 1392), and Sadeghi (2018), have introduced Persian as a stress-accent language like English, based on the acoustic correlates of stress. Rahmani (2019), on the other hand, has argued that “tones” are the sole acoustic correlates of lexical prominence in Persian in a pattern similar to tonal languages. The authors of the present study argue that Persian is not a stress-accent language soley on the basis of the acoustic correlates of stress. Rather, the tendencies of the whole phonological system confirm that stress does not play a key role in this language. Due to the importance of syllable in the phonological system of Persian, this language is considered to be a syllable-timed language.

This research has been carried out using framework of Sensory Linguistics. The Sensory Linguistics examines the relationship between senses and language. It also deals with the issue of how and to what extent each language encodes sensory cognition and what difference languages may have in regard with sense encoding. In this research, we employed the average perceptual strength of the five senses, presented by Lynott and Connell (2009), to examin the frequency of sensory adjectives and the juxtaposition of nouns and sensory adjectives in five contemporary short stories of realisticistic style and four contemporary surrealistic short stories. It is to note that the stories in both groups of styles shad relatively equal word count (29406 words in sum). The results showed that the highest and lowest number of sensory adjectives both realisticistic and surrealistic styles pertain to the sense of sight and the sense of smell respectively. Interestingly, given these, the sight and smell senses constitute the two ends of a continuum in the middle of which fall the other three senses, namely hearing, touch and taste senses. Therefore, the hierarchy of Lynott and Connell (2009) applies to both styles with a difference in the position of the two senses of hearing and taste. But the number of sensory adjectives in all senses in the realistic style is significantly more than the surreal. This can be considered as a distinguishing component of the realistic style. Such being the case, it is interesting to note that the data and findings of the present study do not follow the same line as Lynott and Connell (2009) and Winter (2019) and therefor, can not provide enough justifications in support of the higher frequency of nouns and sensory adjectives of the same domain.  

The Sensory Linguistics (SL) examines the relationship between the senses and language. The senses are of great importance for human beings since they are significant ever existing media to gain experience from the environment. The knowledge acquired from the surrounding environment through the senses is stored in the mind under the name of knowledge. Language, as a medium that represents a part of human cognition, also plays a role in the senses, that is to say, part of our sensory cognition is realized through language (Miller and Johnson-Laird, 1976: 3; Kövecses, 2002:57). In this research, we recruited the average perceptual strength of five senses presented by Lynott and Connell (2009), to examin the frequency of sensory adjectives and the juxtaposition of nouns and sensory adjevtives in five contemporary short stories with realistic style and four contemporary surreal short stories. In this research, following the fivefold division of senses, we will try to provide justifiable answers to the following research questions:1-    What is the frequency of adjectives related to the five senses in both realistic and surreal stories? 2-    How does the frequency of adjectives align with the Lynott and Connell (2009) average perceptual strength of the five senses?3-    What implications may the diffrences of sensory adjectives in both realistic andsurreal stories have? 

The method of present research is descriptive-analytical. As for the data, we have chosen contemporary Persian short stories. Considering the wide range of words in the language, in this research, we only account for sensory adjectives in nine short stories including five realistic stories of and four surreal stories. In the present research, we have used literary texts as a source for extracting linguistic data to determine what sensory areas the authors have used the most in these stories and how names and sensory adjectives are juxtaposed. Given that the nine stories belonged to two different styles, we presented the number of the adjectives both in total and separate with respect to their styles. It is worth mentioning that in the first stage, repeated adjectives were counted only once; since the goal was to determine the sensory domain to which an adjective belongs. However, when we wanted to know the total number of sensory adjectives in the surreal short stories comparing to realistic short stories, all the occurences of the adjectives were counted, no matter repeated or not repeated.  

The findings suggest the highest number of adjectives belonged to the sense of sight in both realistic and surreal styles and the number of smell sense adjectives was the least. The pairs of noun- adjective related to the sense of sight (sight-sight pairs) were more than other senses, and at the same time, the total number of sensory adjectives in the realistic style was significantly more than the surrealistic, which can be considered as a style-dependant feature.
Considering the juxtaposition of nouns and sensory adjectives, two senses of sight and smell, which are practically at the two ends of the spectrum of average perceptual power, had the most and the least sensory noun-adjective juxtapositions in both styles, respectively.  In other senses, the number of sensory juxtapositions in realistic style was more the surreal style. As much as the hierarchy of Lynott and Connell (2009) is considered, considering each column of juxtaposition for each sense separately, juxtapositions of the same domain are among the most frequent juxtapositions. Therefore, in the same line as with the opinion of Lynott and Connell (2009); Winter (2019), our findings prove that the number of juxtapositions of the same dominans are more than the juxtaposition of different domains. However, in case we compare all the columns of juxtaposition of different domains in each table with the column of juxtaposition of the same domain, then the number of cases of juxtaposition of different domains in three senses will be more than the juxtaposition of the same domain. It is only in the case of the sense of sight that the juxtapositions of the same domain are more than the juxtapositions of different domains. When it comes to the sense of touch, the juxtapositions of the same domain are equal with the the juxtapositions of different domains. Therefore, these findings do not support the postulations of Lynott and Connell (2009) and Winter (2019).

This research aims to improve speech synthesis in Persian and investigate the pitch contour fall between two H* peaks carried out in the framework of the Autosegmental Metrical (AM) theory of intonational phonology. In this paper, we tested two main hypotheses. Firstly, the F0 falls through phonetic interpolation and, secondly, it involves tone spreading. The present paper argues that the first hypothesis is proven to be correct. The data for the present research includes 45 enclitic phrases that were produced using voiced consonants between the two peaks. It means that in the course of producing each phrase, it was taken into consideration that all of the consonants placed between the two peaks would be deliberately and certainly voiced. This is mainly because if the consonants were not voiced, the data analysis results would be affected in Praat. It has to be noted that the distance between the two H* was increased by adding zero to two unstressed syllables. Totally, we recorded 1350 utterances from 30 native Persian speakers. We employed Praat software so as to analyse the utterances. Besides, we utilized SPSS for further analysis. The results of acoustic and statistical analyses showed that the distance between the first peak and the following F0 valley is increased with the addition of the unstressed syllables, demonstrating the alignment of this valley with the beginning of the stressed syllable. Results of statistical analyses revealed that the distance between the H and the following L target is increased significantly with the addition of the unstressed syllables. Furthermore, the normalized pitch contour was computed for all data. This indicates that the fall of the pitch contour between the two H peaks is realized through phonetic interpolation.

The present article examines the structure of number phrase in Persian. It is also aimed at explaining the apparent lack of agreement between numerals and nouns in this language. In other words, it presents an answer to the question of why nouns appear in singular forms in a noun phrase even if they are premodified by a number bigger than one. To put it differently, it is to put forth the inquiry that why numbers and the plural markers "ha"/"an" in Persian are in complementary distribution in noun phrases. If we assume that some sorts of formal (morpho-syntactic) agreement must hold between numerals and the nouns they modify cross-linguistically, as in the Germanic and Romance languages, then, what is to be answered is how this agreement is established between the two elements in question in the number system of Persian. In this study, we adopt a lexico-semantic approach inspired by formal semanticist within the Minimalist Program to investigate the syntax of number phrase in Persian that involves numbers, classifiers and the head nouns. As we proceed, we introduce type shifting and three functional categories within the determiner phrase as Measure Phrase, Numeral Quantifier Phrase, and Agreement Phrase (AgrP). We shall also show that the agreement between the numeral and the head noun is also held in Persian both syntactically and semantically, the same as other languages. Finally, treating the Persian plural markers as adjuncts in construction where this marker accompanies a numeral and a classifier, we argue that in such contexts, the plural markers "ha"/"an" are adjoined to the noun.

In Role and Reference Grammar (RRG), based on stativity, telicity, and punctuality, verbs are classified into six classes named state, activity, achievement, accomplishment, semelfactive, and active-accomplishment. The predicates in these classes can take one, two, or three argument(s) according to the number of participants involved in an event as well as the argument structure of the verb. Three-place predicates need three distinct arguments and they exhibit some abstract or concrete transition or movement in their conceptual structure. The argument in three-place predicates, undergoing alternation, can appear in more than one syntactic format; that is to say, in unmarked structures, direct object is ‘râ’-marked and the indirect object is accompanied by a preposition. This is while in marked or alternate form, the preposition is deleted and the non-macrorole argument receives the role of direct object. In Persian, like many other languages, the frequency of three-place predicates, in comparison with one and two-place predicates, is low, but knowing their behavior is significant for better applying them in related contexts. Employing framework of RRG, this paper, aims to investigate alternation in three-place predicates of Aktionsart in Persian. The data are collected from various web sites, newspapers, books, and also daily conversations. Data analysis shows that state verbs do not undergo alternation; This is mainly because common characteristics of state verbs are their non-action nature and being low transitive or intransitive. Most verbs in this class need one or two argument(s) and low number of three-place predicates in this class, shows no alternation due to stativity and low transitivity. Motion active-accomplishment verbs, however, are more prone to alternation; concrete transition from an actor to a recipient is common among these verbs. Some three-place predicates in achievement class, have alternation; while alternation in accomplishment class, leads mostly to ungrammatical structure. Generally speaking, alternation in three-place predicates is the result of marked selection of the recipient, and is mostly observed in motion active-accomplishment verbs; the reason is non-stativity and high transitivity of this subclass in comparison to other verb classes.       

There is neither a general agreement among linguists nor any comprehensive works on how the process of deletion works in sentences with complex predicates in Persian. In this connection, on the one hand, due to the elimination process, a group of linguists believe that the very problem is concerned with argument ellipsis, On the other hand, others believe that the deletion of the light Verb stranding VP-ellipsis is the result of the deletion process. Considering the duality mentioned in the previous studies and also their ineffectiveness in explaining other grammatical sentences containing complex predicates with deleted constituents, this research is an attempt to provide a new analysis of this linguistic process. In so doing, the present research is grounded upon the dynamic approach to phase theory in minimalist syntax and specifically Bošković's approach (2005; 2013; 2014). The findings of this research indicate that what is deleted in the sentences containing complex predicates is the result of neither an argument ellipsis nor a light Verb stranding VP-ellipsis. But the deleted constituents in the sentences with the complex predicates are either a phase or the complement of a phase.