نشریه غرب شناسی بنیادی
سال سیزدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 26، پاییز و زمستان 1401)

In this paper, with the aim of presenting the foundations, goals, principles and ethical methods for metamodernism, a combined research method including documentary method, conceptual analysis of concept interpretation type and inferential research method of progressive type has been used. First, by applying the documentary research method, while collecting and integrating the moral ideas of metamodernism experts, through the conceptual analysis research method of the interpretation of the concept, he explained and defined metamodernism and ethics in metamodernism. Also, the application of the inferential research method of the progressive type has led to the formulation of the foundations, goals, principles and ethical methods of metamodernism. Therefore, it has been mentioned about creating mobility to move from postmodernist ethics to metamodernist ethics as the ultimate goal of ethics in metamodernism, which includes eight principles and three ethical methods in addition to seven intermediate goals. Components such as returning to past movements, new honesty, authenticity, love and care, collapsing distances, hierarchies, "as if" process and grand narratives have been proposed as the moral principles of metamodernism. Also, integration and combination, the equation of both - neither, and the equation of both - and... are the ethical methods of metamodernism.

Defenders of the error theory believe that no moral knowledge can be found. They consider morality to be just a pleasant legend inherited from our ancestors. Russ Shafer-Landau a famous contemporary moral philosopher, believes that what the defenders of the error theory pursue is not only an attack on a specific moral point of view, but they seek to make the entire moral theory ineffective. According to Russ Shafer-Landau , the followers of the error theory to defend their claim must show that firstly, the acceptance of ethics depends on commitment to moral objectivity and the absoluteness of moral reasons, and secondly, even in the assumption that ethics is based on these two presuppositions, Less than one of these two assumptions is false.  In this article, by examining the strongest arguments against moral objectivity from Russ Shafer-Landau's point of view and revealing their ineffectiveness, we show that the arguments of the defenders of the error theory against objective morality are, at best and strongest, sterile, and therefore skepticism and the impossibility of knowledge Morality is not a correct view of morality.

Government has been one of the most important concerns of political philosophers throughout history. The main goal of this article is to compare the approach of the transcendental school (Sadraei) and the utilitarian school towards the category of government. This research aims to examine and compare the differences and similarities between the transcendental schools (Sadrai) and the utilitarian school regarding various aspects of the government, including the necessity, origin, nature and purpose of the government. The research findings show that each of these two schools has a different approach to the category of government. The transcendental school looks at the state from an ethical and religious point of view, that is, it considers the purpose of creating the state to be the highest good, the achievement of divine values and the salvation of the human world. While the school of utilitarianism considers the government from a materialistic and utilitarian point of view. Despite this, similarities can be seen in the approach of these two schools towards the government. These considerations indicate that this research is descriptive-analytical with a documentary-historical approach based on a comparative approach and the data collection method is library.

According to moral non-naturalism, moral notions like “goodness” are sui generis. They are not reducible to any natural or metaphysical notions. One of the pivotal arguments raised against the view is the normative argument. The main idea is that these sui generis properties would have no “normative authority” over us. In this paper, I will consider an external construal of the argument developed by Dasgupta. Dasgupta, in his external normative argument, grants for the sake of argument that there is a sui generis property P. However, he holds that there is still the unanswered question: Why the sui generis property P should be promoted? He claims that there is no answer to this question; hence P, if there is such a property, cannot be the property “goodness”. In this paper, I will examine the argument at length. I will try to clarify that the argument is based on the wrong supposition.

Plato's narrative of the educational nature of Socratic political philosophy ultimately leads to the negative position towards the political way of life. On the other hand, Aristotle tries to give a narrative of Socratic political philosophy in which, in addition to emphasizing the final purpose of Socrates, i.e. defending the philosophical way of life against non-philosophical ways, one can defend the political way of life positively. In this article, we attempt to show that Aristotle's first step in this direction is necessarily to defend the political way of life as a natural way for human beings. We show here that Aristotle's claim that "man is a political being by nature" has a fundamentally ironic and rhetorical characteristic. On the other hand, it seems that this ironic and rhetorical position is a necessary part of his alternative educational plan against the Platonic one. Therefore, confronting the complexity of Aristotle's interpretation of the term "nature" is in a way the focus of our considerations in this article.

Social emergence is one the most important problems in social science that the way it is answered affects the results of social studies and policies. The complexity of social emergence conception has caused a variety of definitions. This article seeks to define the robust social emergence conditions, using the philosophy of mind conception such as subvenience, wildly disjunctives, and multiple realization. Different approaches have different challenges in satisfying robust social emergence conditions. These challenges could be formulated in three problems i.e. realism, top-down causality, and mechanism. This article aims to analytically criticize how critical realism approaches these problems. Critics believe that critical realism faces two sort of difficulties in satisfying robust social emergence: the first, the independence of structure from agencies that leads to reifying and the second, that ontological and causal emergence conflicts with subvenience. It seems the first problem could be resolved by employing the unrestricted mereological composition conception, and the second by the fact that subvenience do not necessitate ontological dependence.

How to deal with "the other" and then its decisive role in adopting an intercultural approach is of undeniable importance among the philosophers of this field. Bernard Waldenfels, a contemporary intercultural philosopher, considers encountering with "the other" to be a kind of paradoxical encounter that can be referred to as the presence of the absent. This German philosopher has chosen a maximalist opinion regarding the encounter with "the other" and separated himself from others by saying "،the Alien" instead of "the other". While "the Alien" is not a negation of the subject and is rooted in "I", it cannot be reduced to a familiar thing or my property, nor can it be reduced to the previous order.The important theoretical consequences of this attitude with the "phenomenology of the alien" method are in line with the requirements of the contemporary polyphonic world and today's life, and not just today's life, but in general, human life is nothing but a constant movement of In-betweenness, and such a requirement has become possible due to the human body. The intercultural philosophy of Waldenfels is to deal with this issue with all the innovations and to solve the previous problems with an innovative foundation.

Derrida plays a significant role in introducing Saussure to the philosophical and linguistic discourse of our time. While dealing with Saussure's intellectual foundations and Saussure's influence on Derrida, this article aims to analyze Derrida's deconstructive criticism of Saussure on the issue of writing. Saussure, in the book of General Linguistics, by dividing the realm of language into two parts outside and inside, pushes writing out of the inner realm of language and considers it as the representation of language. Saussure considers writing to usurp the place of speech and considers it a marginal matter. Derrida believes that Saussure could not violate the metaphysics of presence by determining the limits of the inside and outside for language and the exit of writing from the inner realm of language. By proposing the concept of Difference, he refers to the independent aspect of writing compared to speech and removes writing from the subjugation of speech. According to Derrida, the arbitrariness of the sign can bring the signifier out of the subjugation of the signified and create multiple signifiers. According to Derrida, Difference indicates the possibility of continuous becomings in the text, and these becomings will bring an endless chain of signifiers.

According to Gilles Deleuze, the Virtual is the ideal dimension of reality and the virtual image is the inseparable part of crystal-time between subjectivity and objectivity, which is the most complex form and structure of narrating time Deleuze,. This study aims to illuminate the concept of the virtual image in Gilles Deleuze's philosophy, and since the main hypothesis of this research is the effect of the concept of the virtual image on the "European art cinema movement" in the field of narrative's methods and structures, hence the research In order to prove this hypothesis, after explaining the concept of the virtual image and its role in the crystal-time model in Gilles Deleuze's philosophy, the study will examine movies like; Hiroshima My Love 1959 - last year in Marine Wind 1961 - Immortal 1963 in order to demonstrate how these films have achieved different representations of a time in their narrative structure and what are the differences with a linear structure of time. Also, this research seeks to achieve a model for reading and analyzing this type of time-oriented narrative.

The crisis of the public sphere or the category of the end of politics is one of the topics that has received a lot of attention in the political thought of the West in recent years. Reluctance to participate in elections, lack of trust in government and politics, and a decrease in political knowledge are some of the phenomena that have caused Western thinkers to refer again to concepts such as politics, the private sphere, and their relationship. In this article, Hannah Arendt's political thought about the place of the public sphere and the private sphere is discussed as a theoretical base and then the external manifestation of this thought and its effects on the western society are examined. As Hannah Arendt thinks, the modern western politics has lost its independence and has appeared in a new meaning, a meaning that makes it dependent on the economy and, in other words, the private sphere.In the modern era, as emphasized by Arendt, politics established a close bond with economy and was defined under it.