نشریه تاریخ اسلام و ایران
سال سی و سوم شماره 59 (پاییز 1402)

The island of Crete was conquered by the Ottomans between 1644-1669 AD/1054-1080 AH. In a relatively short time after this conquest, there were a large number of Muslims on the island of Crete. This Muslim population, which initially had a relatively better position compared to the Christians of the island, was put in a difficult position after the beginning of the independence movements of the Christians of the island in 1821 AD/1326 AD. The main topic of this research is the study of the origin of the Muslim population of the island, the emergence of a large Muslim population in a relatively short period of time and its fate after the beginning of the independence movements on the island. Based on available first-hand sources and with a descriptive analytical approach, this research attempts to answer the question of how the large Muslim population of Crete emerged and what was the fate of this large population after the beginning of the independence movements and the weakening of the Ottoman government’s power on the island. The results of the study showed that a large part of the island's Muslim population were the natives of the island who converted to Islam as a group and individually since the beginning of the Ottoman conquests on Crete. After the beginning of the independence movement in Crete, especially from the end of the nineteenth/beginning of the fourteenth century, i.e. simultaneously with the weakening of the power of the Ottoman government, these Muslims were attacked by Christian Greeks and their property was often looted or destroyed. The Muslims were forced to leave the island as living conditions became increasingly difficult.

Some scholars doubt that the dialog "Alcibiades Major" was written by Plato, but this conversation has an important place among the works belonging to the Platonic school. "Alcibiades Major" contains a dialog between Socrates and the young Alcibiades, and in some parts of the conversation they also talk about the Achaemenid Empire. In this study, only one part of the conversation has been considered, namely that Socrates mentions Cyrus the Great and Xerxes I as the only people the young and ambitious Alcibiades respects. Thus, the aim of this study is to identify, through a critical and comparative reading of the conversation of "Alcibiades Major", the concepts and images that led the author to mention the names of Cyrus and Xerxes as the only honorable persons for Alcibiades". Finally, this study aims to analyze the hidden ideas that existed in the public opinion of the Greeks of the 5th and 4th centuries BC about these two Achaemenid great kings.

During the Qajar era, some scholars pointed out the reasons for poverty in Iran, and some research was also done on approaches to solve economic problems. Thaqa-ul-Islam Tabrizi was one of the clerics who spoke out during the Constitutional Movement in the form of letters, treatises and political-economic articles, proposing solutions to overcome the obstacles to Iran's economic development. In this essay, the reflections of this cleric on the economic issues of the Qajar era will be examined on the basis of institutionalism, using a historical approach of analysis and interpretation. Although the theory of institutionalism had not yet emerged and reforms such as the development and expansion of human resources were not planned in the period under discussion and the ideas expressed by Thaqa-ul-Islam are considered as a retrospective of this theory, it seems that the thoughts of this cleric can be explained with the components of this theory. Since the institutionalists view the economy as nothing more than the transaction of property parcels and see institutions as facilitators of this exchange, a picture of efficient government and Thaqa-ul-Islam's approach to achieving this goal was first drawn. It then examined the role of the government as the largest institution in creating a legal system that supports property and its role in legislating and monitoring the law. Finally, the relevant laws to improve the quality of human resources through education, budget, taxation, liquidity volume, the National Bank, customs, roads, agriculture, trade and industry were reviewed. The result of this study is that Thaqa-ul-Islam considers the government as the greatest institution and useful institutions can be authorised and supervised through an amendment in the form of the constitution in the form of laws. Economic reforms would have been accessible through these institutions. Secondly, in his opinion, an efficient judiciary belonged in the constitution to guarantee the principle of property and facilitate investment.

Iran-Ottoman relations were very vicissitudinous during six centuries. The two states concluded various agreements to end the war and establish peace. Among the treaties, the two treaties of Zohab (1639/1049) and Erzeroum (1847/1263) are very important. Because it was the basis for settling disputes and concluding subsequent agreements. Until the conference of Erzeroum (1259-1263), no doubts were expressed about the “originality and validity” of the Zohab Treaty. Iranian and Ottoman representatives for the first time, in the fifth  session and later in several other sessions of Erzeroum negotiations, while accepting the "authenticity" of the treaty, engaged in a serious debate about the "originality and validity" of the existing copies. In this research, the arguments of the representatives of the parties regarding the originality and validity of the Zohab treaty have been explained using the descriptive-analytical method and relying on unpublished documents. The findings of the research show that Mirza Taghi Khan, insisting on the necessity of presenting the "original" of the treaty by the Ottoman representative, did not accept the "copeies" presented by him and for this reason, it has prevented him from proving her territorial claims in Erzeroum negotiations.

In order to reduce the political and economic influence of foreign banks, the Iranian people's demand for the establishment of the National Bank of Iran was implemented in the first Pahlavi period. German experts played an important role in its establishment, but the embezzlement of Dr. Linden Blatt (president of the bank) damaged the reputation and performance of this bank. This article examines the impact of international events on the first and most important embezzlement of National Bank Iran. The main question of this study is how international events have affected the embezzlement of Iran National Bank. The methodology of this article is descriptive-analytical and relies on classical documents that compare and analyze the history of Iran and the world on the above topic.Findings and results The results of this study show that the world experienced the greatest economic crisis shortly after the establishment of the National Bank. Moreover, the devaluation of the Iranian national currency and the pound sterling at that time paved the way for the embezzlement of the bank by the board of directors. With the establishment of the League of Nations and the intensification of international relations, Iran also demonstrated the legitimacy of the new Iranian legal system, which became popular in the world after the abrogation of the capitulation. In this respect, the implementation of the embezzlement process was a good propaganda success for the Iranian government.

The prominent position of Khwaja Nasir al-Din Tusi among the Ismailis and his proximity and influence with the Mongols in Iran have led to the view that Khwaja was appointed "minister" in these governments, and the prevalence of this view has gone so far that it has been regarded as a definite statement by a number of scholars; but the verifications do not confirm this view". It seems that there are no credible and reliable sources and documents for the said viewpoint and that what has been said is based on sources in this field that the authors did not know in detail, or that they referred to Khajah as an Ismaili and Mongol vizier for special considerations. This study was conducted in a descriptive and analytical method with the aim of evaluating a statement about the life of Khwaja Nasir al-Din, and it shows that Khwaja, apart from the influence he had with the Ismaili rulers and then with the Mongols, and apart from the fact that he held certain positions, including the leadership of the ilkhan "Awqaf Mamalik" in his hands, never held the responsibility of a "ministry' (in its technical and specialized sense). However, one cannot overlook the fact that Khwaja was a close relative of the Ilkhans and, apart from the foundations, also had influence on Mongol rule in Iran.

One of the key figures of the communist movement in Iran was Ehsan Tabari. With his extensive expertise, he increased the credibility of the Tudeh Party of Iran and educated the younger members of the party in Marxist ideology. His contribution led to an increase in the party's following among intellectuals and workers. His deep faith and unwavering adherence to the party and the principles of Marxism were so unshakeable that there was no doubt about its eventual collapse. Nevertheless, it collapsed, and he confirmed this by writing about it. His assertion of religiosity cast doubt on his true intentions after his commitment to Marxism. How was it possible that someone who was a renowned theorist and a crucial figure in the party could so easily abandon the belief that he had held for almost half a century and which was at the core of his identity? This paper attempts to provide an adequate answer to the research question by examining his moral, partisan and political characteristics through the works and memoirs of his party friends - both those who support and those who oppose him - as well as through the texts of his interrogations from 1362š to 1364š. The results of the study indicate that Tabari pursued a tactic of opportunistic religiosity and used concealment (taqiye) as a means of protecting his faith and intellectual reticence, as he saw this as the only viable choice.