فهرست مطالب زهره سلحشور سفیدسنگی

The current research was carried out with the aim of investigating the use of a combined curriculum and the use of the reverse method in the courses of philosophy and logic.

The present research method is descriptive-analytical. The scope of research, documents and documents are valid.

The use of a hybrid program in philosophy and logic courses makes it possible to use technology to expand the physical boundaries of the classroom, access to learning content and resources should be provided, and the ability of instructors to receive feedback on the progress of learners should be improved, and in this way, the goals of the training courses could be better achieved. By using the reverse method and electronic learning, the principles and rules can be learned outside the classroom, and the classroom can be focused on the application of these sciences and doing exercises and projects. Of course, considering that one of the main influencing factors in the effectiveness of e-learning is the use of appropriate educational design methods to shape the teaching and learning environment; therefore, the teacher's role in this curriculum is an educational designer. A design that can create an attractive environment in the face-to-face and virtual classroom so that the audience can learn different subjects with interest.

The general conclusion of the research showed that the use of a combined program along with the reverse method, It empowers teachers and increases students' thinking skills, in such a way that they can apply the rules of logic and the views of different philosophers in understanding and solving different problems.

One of the most important and complex inner human senses is common sense. The common sense perceives information such as image, taste, sound and the like in objects through the five senses and combines this information with each other. The definition of this feeling in Islamic philosophy and neuroscience is a common definition. However, neuroscience refers to this sense as convergence zones. The specialization of convergence areas is that it establishes a link between the information obtained through the five senses about an object. Therefore, although there is a different name for combining the information of the senses in neuroscience and Islamic philosophy, but its definition and function are common. Of course, the direction of sharing is not limited to a mere definition, because the arguments of Islamic philosophers to prove the existence of common sense are still valid and neuroscience also confirms it despite the progress made in these sciences.Also, from the point of view of Islamic philosophy, the explanations of neuroscience about the areas of convergence are acceptable, but according to this philosophy, the findings of neuroscience only explain the material dimension of common sense perceptions. Because according to this philosophy, perception is not only a material phenomenon, but also an immaterial matter. Therefore, from the point of view of Islamic philosophy, especially Mullah Sadra's philosophy, although these explanations are acceptable, but perception happens after these stages, by the soul.

The sense of taste and smell is one of the senses that has been considered by Islamic philosophers such as Mulla Sadra and neuroscientists. In philosophy and neuroscience, taste and smell are a means of understanding smells and tastes. On how to understand smell and taste by looking at the data and arguments of these sciences, these explanations complement each other. From the point of view of neuroscience, chemical stimuli undergo a complex process of taste and smell in the taste and smell system, which ultimately leads to the perception of smell and taste. But Mulla Sadra distorts the explanation of natural scholars of these senses and believes that in these definitions the underlying causes are confused with the active causes. Sadra believes that when the soul communicates with the natural world and outside through the body and belonging to the body, it creates a form similar to a foreign object in its realm (soul). Accordingly, this study compares the views of neuroscientists and Mulla Sadra on the perception of taste and smell. Also, the natures used in Mulla Sadra's theories are reviewed using modern sciences. Thus, it seems that according to the theories of neuroscience in the field of various tastes, a change must be made in this field in transcendent Theosophy.

Auditory perception, or hearing, is a major human sense, which was investigated by Muslim philosophers and neuroscientists. Muslim philosophers, particularly Mullā Ṣadrā, have provided careful accounts of the issues concerning external senses such as hearing. In his view, auditory perception occurs in the human soul, while neuroscience provides a fully material account of all perceptions, including auditory perception. From a neuroscientific viewpoint, sounds pass through interior layers of the ear to reach auditory neurons, in the course of which they undergo a complicated process leading to auditory perception. However, Mullā Ṣadrā believes that the whole process occurring in the auditory system is just preparatory for perception of sounds by the human soul. This is the soul that creates the true nature of sounds. On his account, the relation between sounds and the inner self is like that between actions and their agents, where actions are done by their agents, rather than that between a passive entity and what it receives. For this reason, Mullā Ṣadrā holds that the account of auditory perception offered by natural scientists is objectionable, since they involve a confusion between preparatory causes and efficient causes. The accounts provided by natural sciences rest content with an elaboration of material stages of auditory perception, while Mullā Ṣadrā believes that perception is non-material in nature, which is just enabled and prepared by those material processes. Accordingly, Mullā Ṣadrā offers the following account: when the soul has a relation with the natural external world through its attachment to the body, it creates a similar image of the external object, where that image is both caused and known by the soul. After the auditory perception, the human soul draws on the images derived from physical entities or those received from the spiritual world (the imaginal world, or ʿālam al-mithāl) creates images in its imaginary perception as well. Contrary to senses that are limited to material entities, imagination extends to the supernatural world as well. Thus, according to Mullā Ṣadrā’s philosophy, imagination includes a number of perceptions, such as perception of sensible entities while no matter is present, their perception in dreams, and imaginal perceptions. Perception of sounds in the absence of any external material sources does not require material tools or organs, since many material features do not exist in that realm. This is comparable to memory in neuroscience, although it has not yet offered a plausible account of conscious selection of memories. Moreover, the hearing that occurs in dreams does not involve an environmental system. Although some people still perceive the waves of the material world in their sleep, this is a very different process from that of sensory audition. In the hearing that occurs in dreams, one might hear an intense sound like thunders, which affects one’s soul just like hearing in the waking state, although it was not perceived by the material organ of hearing; that is, one’s ears. Hearing in dreams is indeed one piece of evidence adduced by Mullā Ṣadrā as an argument for the immateriality of perceptions, but this type of hearing is investigated in neuroscience as a kind of dream. Despite their accuracy, the findings of neuroscience here merely demonstrate that perception occurs with the stimulation of certain cells in the body, but the stimulation does not show whether the area in question is a center for processing and storing information or a pathway through which information is transferred. Also in imaginal hearing, only external sounds of the imaginal world are heard, without being mixed with inner secretions, and the sound in the imaginal world does not require material factors such as waves and frequencies. For Mullā Ṣadrā, if the human imaginative faculty is strong, the relation with the imaginal world can occur in the waking state such that hidden imaginal forms are presented to the person, who will thus be able to hear sounds from the imaginal world. Because of its non-material character, this stage of auditory perception is not subject to neuroscientific investigations. The final stage of auditory perception is intellectual hearing, which is the highest degree of auditory perception, which has degrees of intensity and weakness, just like light. Intellectual hearing has degrees, the lowest of which has traces of imaginal sounds, but the higher we go on the scale of intellectual hearing, we come closer to a realm in which no imaginal properties are involved, a realm of pure perception. In its evolutionary course, intellectual hearing reaches a degree where it perceives profound supernatural ideas in the most translucent form. This is a hearing that emerges with the rise of the acquired intellect (al-ʿaql al-mustafād) and then gradually grows.

One of the most important and complex human senses is the sense of touch. The sensation of cold, warmth, roughness, softness of the objects, and similar items are perceived by the skin. The concept of this sense in Islamic philosophy and neuroscience has a common definition. But neuroscience has described the process of touch sensation in more details. According to Mulla Sadra's philosophy, these details about the tactile process are acceptable, but neuroscience only addresses “the preparing causes” of perception. This explanation about preparing causes is also mentioned in Mulla Sadra's works, which is compatible with the natural science explanations in that era. According to Mulla Sadra, only after the stages of preparing causes, the perception by the soul takes place.The tactile sense is also among the common topics in Mulla Sadra's philosophy and neuroscience. Neuroscience classification is based on sensory receptors, but in Mulla Sadra's philosophy, things that are tangible are the basis of classification. In this regard, it seems better to update the topic of tactile sense according to the findings of neuroscience.

Notion of consciousness is one of the most important problems in the history of philosophy. Because of the difficulty of defining consciousness, some philosophers have divided it into phenomenal consciousness, access consciousness, self-consciousness, and monitoring consciousness. Philosophers who associate consciousness with the soul, such as Mulla Sadra, from which he refers to the knowledge of presence and on that basis, it explains the characteristics of consciousness, all types of consciousness refer to something beyond the material. This, in his view, can not reduce consciousness to matter.This is while the physicalist views, such as the theory of connectivity, attribute consciousness to matter. According to connectors, consciousness can be explained using artificial neural networks. Contrary to its claims, this theory is incapable of explaining the types and characteristics of knowledge. In this theory, the reason that attributes awareness to neural networks is to make awareness equal to the processing of information. While, according to Mulla Sadra, consciousness (understanding of information) involves processing information.But it is also possible to process information without consciousness. According to Mulla Sadra's view, therefore, the relation between consciousness and information processing cannot be equated.

One of the most important philosophical discussions is on the notion of “I” and consciousness. Mulla Sadra, like other Islamic philosophers, attributes the notion of “I” and consciousness to the soul, but contrary to earlier philosophers, he tries to present a monist explanation for the body mind relationship to solve the problems arising for the earlier philosophers because of their dualist explanation for the body mind relationship. For him, human being is a moving substance, who transcends from a wicker mode of being named “body” to a stronger mode of being called “abstract soul”. While according to neurosciences, consciousness is attributed to the brain, and “I” comes out of consciousness. But neuroscientists have not yet presented a complete explanation of the consciousness. Hence they justify their theory by using the idea that brain damages are the cause of certain changes in consciousness or of losing it. But, since the Transcendent Theosophy does not deny the role of the brain in the process of consciousness, it does not consider their reason sufficient to justify their theory. According to the Transcendent Theosophy, though the interactions of the brain is preparing the ground for the consciousness, it cannot be merely reduced to the matter (brain); consciousness or “I” is an immaterial issue which unifies various perceptions, and is able to analyze and compare them, while in neurosciences, there is no explanation for such an issue.

Memory is a potency which makes man to be able to fix and to deposit those data which are being grasped through senses, and to use them whenever are needed. That is why our data remain unchanged and we can clearly remember our past. For Mulla Sadra the memory is unchanged because it is an abstract entity. Based upon his theory, all corporeal entities are constantly moving. Therefore if the memory is corporeal, it has to be subject to the change. But neuroscientists do not consider all motions as change. So for them the motions at the level of subatomic or atomic world do not make any change in the biological world. Even if it is considered to be a change by transcendent theosophy, but for neuroscientists only those changes at the level of neuron sells can change the memory, thus they attribute the fixity of the memory to the fixity of coding the genes and accordingly coding the neurons, and if any kind of confusion occurs in this function, we will lose our memory. Therefore for them the memory is corporeal, and in spite of being so, in normal conditions no change occurs in its deposited data. Thus to prove the abstractness of the memory we have to utilize other reasons.

In Islamic philosophy، presential knowledge has been presented in the works of Suhrawardī. After him، Mullā Sadrā has developed the concept. Suhrawardī has defined knowledge as manifestation and light and Mullā Sadrā has used this definition. While opposed to Suhrawardī on the vision issue، Mullā Sadrā is influenced by him in some other issues such as the problem of acquiring imaginative perceptions. There are a number of disagreements between Suhrawardī and Mullā Sadrā including vision issue، materiality or abstractness the imagination، and attachment of soul to intellectus agens or its identification with it. Besides، there are many agreements between them as well. For instance، they agree on definition of knowledge. These agreements and disagreements have been emerged from principles used by each of them، including soul’s activeness or passiveness in comparison to the forms and non-essential definition of knowledge. For example، whether soul is active or passive in comparison to the forms will lead to different theories on vision issue. On the other hand، agreement on non-essential definition of knowledge will lead to agreement on definition of knowledge.