فهرست مطالب ندا کردونی

Fake news and disinformation have emerged as significant challenges in the digital age, with profound implications for individual and societal well-being. This article aims to provide an extensive analysis of recent international legal mechanisms developed since 2015 to address the escalating threat posed by fake news and disinformation to international peace and security. Employing a descriptive-analytic approach, this study explores the reasons behind the proliferation of fake news and disinformation, and their multifaceted impacts, and draws upon several legal articles addressing this issue.Efforts to counter the spread of fake news and misinformation have gained traction among international organizations, regional and global institutions, national governments, and various stakeholders at different levels. These initiatives aim to uphold democratic structures, protect the rights of minority groups, and maintain security and stability in society. For instance, the United Nations (UN) has recognized the impact of disinformation on peace and security, emphasizing the importance of promoting information literacy, critical thinking, and responsible journalism to combat this issue (UN, 2020). The UN Security Council, in its Resolution 2317 (2016), acknowledged the potential role of fake news in exacerbating conflicts and destabilizing regions.However, such endeavors have not been without criticism, particularly concerning the potential infringement upon freedom of expression. Critics argue that measures taken to combat fake news and disinformation may inadvertently curtail the rights and freedoms of individuals and groups. Balancing the need to address the harmful effects of fake news while safeguarding freedom of expression remains a complex challenge for policymakers and legal experts alike. Legal scholars such as Fenwick (2019) highlight the necessity of finding the right balance between countering disinformation and protecting free speech, advocating for nuanced approaches that do not undermine democratic values.Moreover, research conducted in multi-ethnic countries reveals that fake news and disinformation can exacerbate ethnic tensions, leading to a new form of threat and discrimination against ethnic groups. False information can perpetuate existing conflicts and foster animosity between different communities. A study by Johnson et al. (2018) examined the role of disinformation in fueling ethnic conflicts in Southeast Asia, highlighting the need for comprehensive strategies to counter its divisive impact. Similarly, research by Di Gennaro and Dutton (2019) explored the impact of disinformation on ethnic polarization in Nigeria, emphasizing the role of social media platforms in amplifying divisive narratives.To effectively address the challenges posed by fake news and disinformation, international legal mechanisms should be carefully designed to target the dissemination of false information while upholding the fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals and groups. Collaborative efforts between international organizations, governments, civil society, and media institutions are crucial in developing and implementing strategies. The Council of Europe, for instance, has adopted a comprehensive approach, emphasizing media pluralism, transparency, and supporting fact-checking initiatives (Council of Europe, 2017). The European Union, through its Code of Practice on Disinformation, seeks to promote transparency, integrity, and accountability in online platforms (European Commission, 2018).Drawing upon the experiences and recommendations of legal scholars and researchers, several key strategies can be identified to address the issue of fake news and disinformation comprehensively. First, fostering media literacy and critical thinking skills is essential in enabling individuals to discern reliable information from falsehoods. Educational programs, awareness campaigns, and media literacy initiatives should be promoted to enhance the public's ability to critically evaluate news sources and content (Kaplan, 2019). The importance of media literacy is also recognized by organizations such as UNESCO, which emphasizes the need for comprehensive media and information literacy programs to counter disinformation (UNESCO, 2018)Second, promoting responsible journalism practices is vital to combating the spread of fake news and disinformation. Media organizations should uphold journalistic ethics, fact-checking protocols, and professional standards to ensure the dissemination of accurate and reliable information. Collaborative efforts between media institutions, fact-checking organizations, and technology platforms can contribute to the verification and debunking of false information (Wardle & Derakhshan, 2017). The role of media self-regulation in maintaining journalistic integrity and countering disinformation is highlighted in the research by Nielsen and Graves (2017), which emphasizes the importance of industry-wide initiatives to address this issue.Third, the regulation of social media platforms and technology companies is crucial in curbing the spread of fake news and disinformation. Transparent algorithms, improved content moderation, and cooperation with fact-checkers can help mitigate the dissemination of false information. Striking a balance between regulation and avoiding censorship is a challenge that requires careful consideration of the potential impact on freedom of expression (Citron & Norton, 2011). Legal scholars such as Gillespie (2018) argue for a comprehensive regulatory framework that ensures accountability, transparency, and user empowerment in the digital ecosystem.Furthermore, international cooperation and coordination are essential to effectively address the transnational nature of fake news and disinformation. Cross-border collaboration between governments, international organizations, and technology companies can facilitate the sharing of best practices, information, and resources in combating this global challenge. The Global Disinformation Index, for example, serves as a collaborative effort to provide tools and data to mitigate the spread of disinformation (Global Disinformation Index, n.d.).In conclusion, the rise of fake news and disinformation poses a grave global threat to international peace and security. Countermeasures against this phenomenon have encountered both support and opposition, with the need to balance the preservation of freedom of expression and the mitigation of harmful effects. Efforts to combat fake news and disinformation should encompass a multi-faceted approach that includes media literacy, responsible journalism practices, regulation of technology platforms, and international cooperation. By implementing comprehensive legal mechanisms and fostering collaboration among stakeholders, societies can effectively confront the challenges posed by fake news and disinformation while upholding the principles of freedom of expression and preserving peace and security.

Terminology related to minority issues in international law has a broad impact on managing the cultural diversity such as the rights of racial, ethnic, national and language groups and also the security of the states, societal groups and in general human security. Lack of transparency about the meaning of words such as ethnicity, people, nation, indigenous and different legal interpretations surronding them, provoke a grave difficulty in the course of coding and promoting minority rights. This global challenge has created much more serious confusion in countries like Myanmar where minority- state relation is highly securitized. Securitization of minority issues along with this terminology ambiguity in international law make the minority-state relation in those country more complicated. This paper tries to show how the confusion around terminology affects the minority issues in the legal context.

Today, individual humans along with states have become major actors in the international society. Complicated inter-state relations have led to changing the prospect of some political theoreticians about the definition of war. This group of scholars believe that the old classification of conflict into international and internal and even relatively new categories such as internationalized conflicts could not explain the new types of war that we see in our world in a satisfactory way. On the other hand, concern about the growth of sectarianism, radicalism and also increasing separatist demands from ethnic groups in the Middle East and rest of the world invoked novel studies and start the process of creating new theories about national and ethnic identities. This paper tries to examine one of the new approaches on definition of wars by focusing on identity issues and also differences between new types of war in the current century in comparison with past one.

Oral and dental injuries commonly occur during oral and nasal intubation and comprise one third of lawsuits against anesthesiologists. This study sought to assess dental traumas(especially minor injuries like cracks) due to oral and nasal intubation and related risk factors. This observational prospective study was conducted on 60 patients (30 patients in the oral and 30 in the nasal intubation groups) during 2010-2011 in Taleghani Hospital in Tehran. Patients were examined using a disposable sterile clinical examination kit, a periodontal probe and a light curing unit. Maxillary central incisors had the highest incidence of new cracks (60% and 63.3% in the oral and nasal intubation groups, respectively). Gender, BMI, ASA class, Angle’s classification, and experience of the operator who inserted the tube had no significant association with higher frequency of cracks in the two groups. Incidence of visible dental injuries following nasal and oral intubation was 1.7% and 10%, respectively. Invisible dental injuries due to intubation are highly prevalent. These injuries are mostly disregarded by the anesthesiologists since they are not visible and do not cause any complication or problem during anesthesia. Enhancing the knowledge of anesthesiologists about dental anatomy, physiology and pathology and use of teeth-guard are necessary measures to prevent such injuries.

The international community applied double standards in treating the recent popular uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa from silence on atrocities conducted in a number of countries like Bahrain to direct military involvement in the Libyan crisis. There have been heated debates on the legitimacy or illegitimacy of such intervention, while thehumanitarian intervention has been the dominant theory in such discussions, which has been faced with serious criticisms as well. The UN Security Council’s performance in the Libyan crisis deserves further examination both in terms of legitimacy and method and foundation for conduct. It is worth noting that the international community’s duty does not end with mere military action for protecting civilians and it also has to carry out its moral and legal responsibilities with the end of hostilities.