فهرست مطالب حسن محمد زاده

The purpose of this article was to investigate the effect of constraint-led approach and teaching game for understanding approaches on students' implicit learning in the form of native-local games. For this purpose, a quasi-experimental method with pre-test-post-test design and purposive sampling method was used. The current research included students aged 10-11 years old, divided into three groups of CLA, TGFU and control. The participants were trained for two one-hour sessions per week for twelve weeks according to the educational approach. CogLab software was used to investigate implicit learning. The results of the mixed ANOVA showed a significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test in the CLA and TGFU groups. Furthermore, 95% and 94% of the changes in students' implicit learning were influenced by CLA and TGFU teaching method. However, no significant changes were observed in traditional education. Therefore, it can be stated that the use of non-linear approaches can improve students' implicit learning.

Menopause is the beginning of a new era in a woman's life. This period, like all other stages of life, has positive and negative aspects. The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of Pilates exercises on serum BDNF level, balance, and quality of life in menopausal and non-menopausal women.

The current study was a quasi-experimental research with a pre-test and post-test design that included two experimental and two control groups. The sample consisted of 60 menopausal and non-menopausal women (age 45.77±1.77 years) who were voluntarily selected and randomly assigned into four groups of 15 people. Fasting blood was drawn from all the participants 48 hours before the start of training and after the end of the training period. Then both experimental groups performed Pilates exercises for 12 weeks, three sessions per week and each session lasted 60 minutes. Also, the participants similarly performed the Y dynamic balance test and completed the World Health Organization Quality of Life (WHOQOL) questionnaire in pre-test and post-test.

The results of Mixed ANOVA showed a significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test of menopausal and non-menopausal women in relevant variables, so it can be said that probably 91%, 76%, and 94% of the changes in serum BDNF levels, balance and quality of life of menopausal and non-menopausal women are influenced by Pilates exercises. However, no significant effect was observed in the relevant variables of control groups (P≤0.05).

Pilates exercises can be an effective strategy to improve serum BDNF levels, balance, and quality of life in menopausal and non-menopausal women.

This paper is about the logical analysis of Allameh Tabataba'i’s itibari perceptions and epistemic pluralism, which examines their relationship. Allameh Tabataba'i invented the theory of itibari perceptions in the analysis of human epistemic plurals. This theory faces two different views. Some believe that there is a necessary relationship between itibari perceptions and epistemic pluralism with a relativistic interpretation of the theory, and through this theory, epistemic pluralism can be concluded. The question that arises is what is the relationship between these two theories? The author's assumes that, firstly, epistemic relativity is not accepted in the theory itself, secondly, epistemic pluralism cannot be deduced from the assumption of relativity. To prove his claim, the author of the article first explained the evidence of the lack of relativity in the theory, and after stating the differences between the two theories, he checked their necessary relationship by using logical analysis and library method. This article, which sought to evaluate the relation of these two theories, did not find any process that could result in epistemic pluralism. Dressing Allameh Tabataba'i’s intellectual field from epistemic pluralism and rejecting the attribution of itibari perceptions to epistemological relativity is the most important result of the findings of the present research.

The aim of this study was to examine the separate and combined effects of the external focus of attention and autonomy support on learning a targeting task, according to OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. 60 female students were randomly assigned into 4 groups of 15 participants in each group including external focus - autonomy support (provided a choice about the place of throwing along with a focus on target); external focus (focus on target); autonomy support (provided a choice about the location of throwing); and a control (without attentional instruction). The research motor task was a controlling throw of a coin with a dominant hand on targets placed on the ground consisting of ten concentric circles. Participants in a 2 * 2 design, (focus externally: Yes/No) (autonomy-support: Yes/No) completed the acquisition phase consisting of 60 trials. Retention test using with 2 hours and 24 hours' delay, were performed. The analysis of variance revealed that the main effect of external focus (p=0.38) and the interaction effects of external focus and autonomy support (p=0.69) are not significant. The main effect of autonomy support is significant (p=0.002). Participants in autonomy support groups performed better than those without autonomy support in retention phase. Overall, these findings suggest that the autonomy support separately and without the combination of external focus affects the learning of a targeting motor skill.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of neurofeedback (NFB) and motor training (MT) on the learning and consolidation of procedural motor performance in novice adolescents. 44 elementary students (mean age 12.1 ±0.6), who had no access to smart devices, were selected as the sample of the research, and then were randomly assigned into four groups; NFB, MT, NFB+MT and control. The implementation of the study included six stages: first baseline, pre-test, intervention (NFB included a 30 minute single-session of alpha suppression on the C4 region for NFB and NFB+MT groups. MT by using 6 blocks of Pursuit Rotor Task (PRT) for NFB+MT and MT groups), secondary baseline, post-test and consolidation test, respectively. Stages 1-5 were done in one day but last stage (learning consolidation test) was conducted 48 hours after the rest period. Participants were right-handed and performed PRT in inverted mode with their non-dominant hand. One-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyses the data. The results showed significantly different between the performance of NFB and MT (P=0.010), NFB and NFB+MT (P=0.044), MT and Control (P=0.022) groups, but the difference between MT and NFB+MT (P=1.000), NFB+MT and Control (P=0.90), and NFB and Control (P=1.000) groups was not significant. The present findings showed that the alpha suppression in C4 had no significant effect on learning and consolidation of unfamiliar and non-automatic movements in novice adolescents but motor training can be an effective way for these people in the first stage of their learning.

Researches in the field of physical education have shown that sports as a physical activity, both at the general level and at the championship level, has an important and impressive role in the perceived physical fitness of people. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between perceived physical fitness and motor competence of students.

For this purpose, 196 female undergraduate students from Yazd University in the age group of 19-22 years participated in this research and completed the perceived physical fitness questionnaire. Then physical fitness tests were performed on the participants. Data analysis was done using Pearson's correlation coefficient and multivariate regression with spss software version 23 and at a significance level of 0.05.

The results showed that there is no significant correlation between the perceived physical fitness and motor competence of students, and the perceived physical fitness cann,t predict any of the components of motor competence.

Due to the low coefficient of determination, perceived physical fitness does not explain students' motor competence and does not have the ability to predict it. Therefore, perceived physical fitness is not an effective factor for improving physical condition and motor skills.

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of Sensory-Motor Integration Activities (SMIA) on balance and executive functions such as attention and working memory of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in 2022.

This research was a randomized single-blinded clinical trial with pre-test and post-test design. To this end, 30 boys with ASD in Tehran's growth center were selected for the research sample with the purposive sampling method and randomly assigned to two experimental and control groups. The experimental group received SMIA for 24 sessions for two months (three sessions of 60 minutes each week); but the control group remained on the waiting list during this time. The data collection instruments included: Berg Balance Scale (BBS) and Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions (BRIEF). Data analysis was done using SPSS-21 software.

The finding of an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) indicate that compared to the control group, the experimental group had a significantly meaningful increase balance and a significant decrease the executive functions of attention and working memory of autistic boys (P<0.001). The effective rate of SMIA treatment was 0.89 for balance, 0.79 for attention, and 0.63 for working memory; which showed a strong treatment effect, high statistical accuracy, and sufficient sample size.

It can be concluded that SMIA improves balance and executive functions of boys with ASD. Therefore, these low-cost movement activities and exercises can be used to improve the physical balance and cognitive functions of autism patients so that they have better physical-mental conditions society.

The purpose of this study was to investigate and compare the effect of mental imagery, observational learning, combined (imagery and observational learning) and physical training on mental representation and performance of novice golfers. To this end, 60 students(age:22.8±2.11) were randomly assigned in four groups: 1) mental imagery, 2) observational learning 3) combined (imagery + observational learning) and 4) physical training. After the pre-test, the participants in each group performed the golf putting for 3 consecutive days (60 attempts per day) and the post-test was performed on the third day. Two days after the post-test, a retention test was taken. Performance accuracy and structure of mental representation of participants were measured as dependent variables. Results showed that in the golf putting variable, the physical training group was better than other groups. Also, the performance of the combined group was better than the imagery and observational learning group. In addition, in the mental representation variable, the combined group had a more structured and accurate mental representation than than other groups. In addition, the imagery group had a better mental representation than the observational learning and physical training group. Overall, The result of this study show that physical training compared to other methods increases the accuracy of golf putting. Also combined imagery and observational learning training, has a greater impact than other methods used in this study.

Hearing impairment is a type of children's sensory disorder that cause problems in the daily life of children and parents. This research aimed to determine the effect of sensory-motor training on fine motor skills and the psychological well-being of children with hearing impairment.

This applied research was a quasi-experimental type with a pre-test and post-test design. The statistical population included children with a hearing impairment from the elementary exceptional student education center in Ardabil City. To participate in this research, the hearing threshold of each student was measured using an audiometer. By using the convenience sampling method, 20 samples were selected and assigned to two control (N=10) and experimental (N=10) groups. The measurement tools included Peabody Developmental Motor Scale (PDMS) for fine motor skills and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) for psychological well-being assessment. No training was given to the groups before the intervention. The experimental group performed 45-minute sessions of sensory-motor integration training for eight weeks and six days a week, by imitating the coach's movements and trying to coordinate with the group at the same time. The control group participated in daily activities. The analysis of the covariance (ANCOVA) test was used for statistical analysis.

sensory-motor integration training had a significant effect on improving children's fine motor skills and well-being and cause improvement in the levels of both factors.

Participating in sensory-motor training can be of great help in reducing motor and psychological problems of children with hearing impairment.

One of the most important goals of any athlete is optimum performance during competitions, and biofeedback is one of the new and growing ways to improve athletes’ performance. This study investigated the effect of biofeedback exercises on some physiological factors and the performance of skilled archers.

The present study was a semi-experimental type with pre-test and post-test design and a control group. Twenty four young men with an average age of 22.5 years were purposefully recruited among the participants who attended national ranking archery competitions and randomly assigned to an experimental and a control group, each consisting of 12 participants. After the pre-test (archery performance test), the experimental group first attended 10 sessions of biofeedback training related to heart rate control and breathing control based on the training protocol and then attended 10 sessions of the same biofeedback exercises with skin conduction guidance. Both groups continued their routine archery exercises under the supervision of the researchers during this period. After completing 20 training sessions, the archery performance was taken again as the post-test with the same pre-test condition from both groups.

The results showed that the heart rate of the participants was higher in tension and stress conditions compared to the resting state (p < 0.05). Also, at the post-test, the experimental group showed a lower heart rate under stress conditions compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Moreover, the analysis of covariance showed that the performance of both groups improved compared to the pre-test, but the experimental group performed better than the control group (p < 0.05). 

According to the findings of this study, more attention should be given to biofeedback exercises, and it is suggested to emphasize its use along with other training protocols.

Growth is an uninterrupted, permanent, and continuous process and includes different dimensions. This study aimed to investigate the effect of rhythmic rebounding exercises on children's motor proficiency and motivation with a 6-month follow-up period.

The current research was quasi-experimental with a pretest and posttest design. The statistical population was 9-10 years old children of Tabriz city, from which 30 people were selected by convenience sampling method and randomly divided into two experimental and control groups. The pre-test included the Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency and the Children's Movement Motivation questionnaire. The experimental group performed the exercises on the rebounder for eight weeks, and the control group did not receive any intervention.Then, the post-test was conducted similarly to the pre-test. After six months period,a retention test was taken from participants of both groups. Statistical analysis was performed using mixed model Analysis of Variance at a significance level of 0.05 via SPSS version 24 software.

The results showed that the rhythmic rebounding exercises had a significant effect on the motor proficiency and motivation of 9-10 years old children so 95% of changes in gross motor skill and 98% of changes in children's movement motivation were probably influenced by the rebounding exercises.

Jumping is a fundamental activity in children's motor development and motivation provides inner force for movement. According to the findings of this research, since rhythmic activities can create motivation for movement and sports activities develop motor skills, it is crucial to provide the necessary equipment and measures for children to use these exercises.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship of perfectionism on psychological distress and coping strategies of endurance athletes. The present research was applied in terms of purpose and descriptive in terms of research. The statistical population of this study was all 18 to 25 years old male and female athletes in endurance sports of East Azerbaijan province that participated in official national or international competitions for at least two years. 200 athletes were selected by available sampling. To collect information three questionnaires of sports perfectionism of Tri-short et al. (1990), Kessler (2002) psychological distress questionnaire and coping strategies questionnaire of Lazarus and Folkman (1988) were used. For testing the hypotheses of this research, Pearson correlation and regression analysis were used in SPSS25 software. The results showed that sport perfectionism has a significant relation with psychological distress and coping strategies of endurance athletes. There is a negative relation between positive sport perfectionism with psychological distress, and a positive relation between negative sport perfectionism with psychological distress of athletes. Also, there is a positive relation between psitive sport perfectionism with coping strategies, and a negative, reverse and significant relation between negative sport perfectionism with coping strategies of endurance athletes.

One of the factors influencing the learning and participation of students in sports activities in schools and other educational environments is the teacher's teaching method. This study aimed to investigate the effects of basketball training based on nonlinear pedagogical (TGFU and GS) and traditional methods on the development of social skills in teenage girls.

The statistical population of the study was Urmia secondary school girls. Subjects were 60 students with an average age of 13.06±3, did not  have any experience in playing basketball, and were physically healthy. They were randomly divided into three groups, each consisting of 20 participants. Matson’s evaluation of social skills questionnaire was used to collect data.

The findings of the study showed that the components of proper social skills, superiority, high self-confidence, and relationship with peers were significantly better in training based on non-linear methods (TGFU and GS) compared to the traditional methods. However, there was no meaningful difference between the two methods of TGFU and GS, except in relationship with peers component in which the GS was better than the TGFU.

Through the use of new nonlinear approaches in teaching, educational instructors can play a more effective role in improving students' social skills as well as teaching the games more effectively.

Considering the importance of the multidimensional character of the home environment in developmental research, especially the motor development of children, the current study examines the effect of parents' socioeconomic status, sports experience rate, and the level of physical activity on the level of motor affordances.

The research method with a cross-sectional approach was descriptive, and data collection was a survey that was conducted in 2022. Participants included 236 parents (father and mother) with children aged 18-42 months and were selected by multi-stage cluster sampling. Parents scored their physical and athletic activities based on level and background/experience. Their socioeconomic standing was determined based on their income and education. The home environment was assessed using the Persian version of the Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development-Self-Report (AHEMD-SR).

The results showed no significant relationship between the rate of sports experience and the level of physical activity of fathers with home motor affordances scores. However, this relationship was significant with the rate of mothers' sports experience (P<0.001, r=0.24), and motor affordances were significantly different from mothers' sports experience (P<0.001, effect size = 11%). The results showed a significant relationship between motor affordances and the mothers' level of physical activity (P<0.05, Eta = 0.21). In addition, there is a significant difference between motor affordances and the mothers' level of physical activity (P<0.05, effect size = 6%). In addition, socioeconomic status indicators had a significant effect of 44% on the level of home motor affordances (P<0.001).

Only the higher the mothers' rate of sports experience and the level of physical activity (more than two years) along with the criteria of socioeconomic status in providing and strengthening home motor affordances for children is more influential and effective. Among the different dimensions of motor affordances, the two dimensions of fine-and-gross motor toys are strongly influenced by the economic conditions of families as well as the sport's history of the mothers.

Background and Aims:

 Balance disorder has been recognized as a leading cause of falls in the elderly. One way to strengthen the balance of the elderly is to use new technologies such as virtual reality. Purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of virtual reality exercises on the dynamic and functional balance of the elderly.

Methods :

The present study was a quasi-experimental research with pre-test and post-test design. Subjects included 24 male aged 60-75 years that were selected by a convenience sampling method from Shabestar city and divided randomly into two virtual and control groups. Participants in the experimental group practiced for 9 weeks, but the control group continued their usual treatment programs. XBox device was used for virtual reality interventions. Also, in order to evaluate the functional and dynamic balance, Berg Balance Scale, and Up and go timed Test were used, respectively. MANCOVA and ANCOVA Tests were used at P<0.05 level to analyze the data.

Results :

MACNOVA test results showed a significant difference (P=0.001) between two groups at least in one balance variable (dynamic and functional). Also, based on the results of ANCOVA test, due to better balance scores in the experimental group, virtual reality practice using Xbox improved their dynamic and functional balance compared to the control group.

Conclusion:

 This study provides evidence that dynamic and functional balance is modifiable in elderly people and that they respond to short-time VR training. It is suggested to use virtual reality as well as balance exercises as a suitable method of improving dynamic and functional balance abilities in the elderly.

Motivation drives humans to attain desired goals or objects by enhancing our attention, facilitating faster physical movement, and reinforcing behaviors that lead to goal acquisition. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of motivational changes and vision training on visual skills, alpha wave and golf skills learning. 60 female students with a mean age (22.2±2/3) years participated in a semi-experimental research project containing pre and post-experimental. Subjects were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups after pre-test. To intervene in the experimental groups, Behavioral interventions of the need-supportive environment and visual training of Revien and Gabor were used. Before and after the training program, Vision tests (Saccade movements, eye-hand coordination and peripheral vision) were performed on the subjects. The alpha wave was recorded using a two-channel neurofeedback device. Participants' performance was also recorded as a radial error in golf putting task Data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance. The results showed that there was a significant difference between the four groups in the post-test scores of visual skills, alpha and performance (p

In recent years, there has been considerable interest in the evolution of physical education teaching from a linear to a non-linear approach. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of traditional games with a hybrid of games for understanding and game sense teaching approaches on students' motor proficiency.

This research was quasi-experimental with a pre-test and post-test design conducted in a field-based study. Fifty-five girl students (10-11years) were randomly divided into four groups: teaching game for understanding, game sense, hybrid of teaching game for understanding and game sense, and traditional group. Subjects practiced one-hour session three days a week according to their group's educational approach for 12 weeks. The Bruininks-Oseretsky test was used to assess children's motor proficiency.

The results of Mixed ANOVA showed a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test of the first three groups. So, it can be stated that for gross motor skills, the Hybrid group got the highest score with 79% of variance explained, and for fine motor skills and total motor proficiency, the teaching game for understanding got the highest scores with 84% and 85% of the variance explained, respectively. Traditional education did not have a significant effect on the investigated variables.

It can be concluded that using the hybrid approach improves children's motor proficiency. The present study shows that teaching games for understanding and game sense models in the form of traditional games are a proper training method to improve motor proficiency in students. It seems that these approaches can be transferred to other educational levels

The aim of the present study was to investigate the conditions of teaching and developing students' physical literacy.

the researchers presented a paradigmatic model of physical literacy development through qualitative method (Grounded Theory). The data collection tools, interviews and research community were 17 experts in physical education and physical education. The validity and reliability of the research method was confirmed by participant review and review by non-participating experts and the content analysis method was used to analyze the data.

The results of the study proved that the main obstacle to the education and development of students' physical literacy is the lack of proper development of physical literacy by the authorities of sport in the society which unfortunately is caused by causal factors, underlying conditions and interventions in our society.

Based on the results of this study, adopting operational strategies such as using leisure time for students to target and plan the development of physical literacy, coordinating between sport and evaluation organizations, enhancing the skills and motivation of teachers can have implications for education and promote the development of physical literacy and the creation of an active lifestyle for students.

In competitive sports as cricket, soccer, basketball and tennis, players must catch a fast moving ball, turn it around or even stop it along the way. To do this successfully, player must ultimately predict the speed, accuracy, location and timing of the ball. The current study aimed to investigate the effect of time constraints on the quiet eye and performance in skilled and novice basketball players.This research were 24 skilled (n=12) and novice (n=12) basketball players with an age range of 19 to 26 years. For this research, task was executed under 0%, 25% and 50% temporal constraint condition. The task included 10 one hand set shot in each of the temporal constraints. The participant’s quiet eye collected by using eye tracking glasses, also the number of successful and unsuccessful shots was recorded on the record sheet. Finally, for the research analysis, 2*3 ANOVA was used. The results showed that there was a significant different in quiet eye and performance between skilled and novice participants with and without temporal constraints, also quiet eye and performance were decreased by increase in temporal constraints. Based on the results of this study, quiet eye can be one of the distinguishing factors of different skill levels, which focus on it can help to improve the expertise performance in sport.

The aim of this study was to determine path analysis the relationship between parental social support and tendency, enjoyment and level of physical activity in adolescent girls. The mediating role of perceived motor competence was also evaluated. The research method is correlational research. The statistical population was adolescent girls aged 14 to 17 years in Tabriz that 380 people were selected as a sample through multi-stage cluster random sampling. Social Support for Exercise Survey, Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire, Physical Activity Questionnaire, Intation to Exercise Questionnaire, Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale were used. Data were analyzed by Pearson correlation test and path analysis at a significant level (P<0.05). The results showed that the variable of parents' social support of physical activity affects all four endogenous variables (physical activity, tendency to exercise, enjoyment of physical activity and the level of physical activity) and perceived motor competence, physical activity enjoyment and tendency to exercise variables, can also predict the level of physical activity as mediating variable. Also, the variable of enjoyment of physical activity indirectly through the mediating variable of tendency to exercise, was able to predict the level of physical activity. The results of this study highlight the importance of the role of parental social support in increasing adolescent physical activity.

The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of traditional training and situational game models on tactical knowledge and situational interest in boys aged 10-12 in football. The study subjects were 24 football school students with a mean age 110±./73. The study consisted of four stages of pre-test, two SGTSP and traditional positional play models, post-test and delayed retention. Subjects in two groups paticipated in 12 sessions trainings in accordance with their training approach. Situational game practice included training based on a 5-step game-based model. . Traditional training also included: training with an emphasis on skill and technique. Tactical knowledge scales and situational interest were completed by learners at all stages of the Descriptive statistics, ANOVA with repeated measures, covariance analysis and Bonferroni post hoc test were used for data analysis. The results show that the tactical knowledge of the SGTSP group is greater than the traditional group. In addition, the scores of situational interest for the SGTSP group showed an increasing in the post-test compared to the pre-test that in challenge, need for attention, innovation, was a significant difference between the two groups. Given that Situational Learning Model with Game Scenarios is a creative educational model presented for sports education in physical education classrooms,The use of this new game-based approach may be able to increase interest, quality of motivation and level of physical activity of students, in addition to enhancing the level of play and learning.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of game sense pedagogy on decision making, supporting and implementing basketball skills in female students. The statistical population of the study was Urmia secondary school girl students.

Subjects were 40 students (each group= 20 people) who did not already have a history of basketball playing and were physically health with an average age of 13.06±3. AAHPERD basketball skills test and game performance assessment instrument were used to collect data.

The results of multivariate covariance analysis showed that students were better at learning of basic skills in the traditional method, but in terms of decision-making and supporting components, the game sense group was significantly better than the traditional group.

In general, the game sense approach has shown better performance in game performance development, and the findings suggest that using a questioning process based on a modified game framework is an appropriate training method for improving game performance in students.

This experiment assessed the effectiveness of two interventions; mental imagery and physical training as compared to a control group, on their ability to improve visuomotor accuracy, measured by scores achieved on a visuomotor task. For mental imagery participants had to imagine throwing a dart and for physical training participants physically practised dart throwing. Measurements were recorded pre-intervention, after two weeks of training (Mid-intervention), after five weeks of training (Outcome Measure 1) and two weeks after training (Outcome Measure 2). Comparison of Mid-intervention, Outcome Measure 1 and Outcome Measure 2 with baseline showed both interventions to significantly increase performance on dart throwing compared to the Control group. Our findings show that, as well as traditional physical practise, mental imagery can effectively improve performance on a fine visuomotor task. This is an important finding highlighting possible applications of mental imagery in those with limited motor abilities to maintain or enhance motor movement.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of two instructional approaches (game based and traditional) on physical activity, self-determined motivation and physical activity enjoyment in university students who participated in physical education classes. This study was semi-experimental. The participants included 30 male university students (mean age 20.67±1.72 years) who were selected by convenience sampling method and randomly divided into two groups: game based instruction and traditional instruction. They participated in 18 sessions (for 6 weeks and 3 sessions a week) of basketball. The data were collected by the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time, Beurer pedometer, Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, and Self-Determination Questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, independent t test, ANCOVA, and RANCOVA were used for analysis of data. The results showed significant differences between game based and traditional groups in the duration of moderate to high intensity physical activity and the number of steps (P≤0.001). There were no significant differences in physical activity enjoyment and a sense of competence between game based and traditional groups; But there were significant differences between two groups in autonomy (P≤0.001) and belonging (P≤0.013).The results showed that game based instructional approach can enhance physical activity level and quality of motivation of university students in physical education classes.

Elderly is a process that changes all aspects of human existence on the basis of slow and progressive changes. A decline in physical function, especially balance, walking, and memory disorders are other problems in the elderly together with physical, psychological, and social consequences.The main purpose of the current study was to investigate the effect of eight weeks of cognitive, motor, and motor-cognitive exercises on explicit motor memory, balance, and walking of elderly women.

The statistical population of the study consisted of 48 elderly women (age: 67.83 ± 2.54 years) who were randomly divided into four groups of 12. Motor training consisted of eight weeks of rhythmic aerobic exercise. For cognitive exercises, Captain’s Log software was used. Hybrid exercise included performing aerobic and cognitive exercises in succession. Measuring instruments included Six-Minute Walk, Timed Up and Go as well as explicit motor memory test to evaluate the cognitive function. Repeated measures ANOVA was used for statistical analysis.

The results showed that eight weeks of cognitive exercise had significant effect on explicit motor memory among participants (p < 0.05) and improved their balance (p < 0.05) and walking (p < 0.05). In addition, hybrid exercises (motor-cognitive) improved both motor function (p < 0.05) and explicit motor memory (p < 0.05) in the participants. Comparison between groups showed that both cognitive and hybrid excersices relative to each other had similar effects on explicit motor memory (p < 0.05) and had rather the same effect on the participants’ balance (p < 0.05) and walking (p < 0.05).

According to the results of the present study, it can be concluded that most changes   regarding improvement time of getting up and going test was in the six minutes test time for motor training group and most changes in the improvement of explicit motor memory was related to cognitive-motor group.