فهرست مطالب حمید رجبی

Beta-alanine supplement, which is a precursor of carnosine, may improve performance by providing a buffering effect. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of beta-alanine supplementation and regular Taekwondo training on anaerobic, aerobic, and endurance activity substrate metabolism in female Taekwondo athletes.

Twenty-four female professional taekwondo practitioners (age, 18.0±2.5 years), from Tehran province volunteered to participate in this research. Based on the body composition and training history, the subjects were divided into two groups (n=12) of supplement and placebo. The pre-tests consisted of the an aerobic specific test (Progressive Specific Taekwondo Test, PSTT) including repeated strikes of Bandal-Tchagui to exhaustion time during a maximum duration of 15 minutes and a taekwondo anaerobic test (Frequency Speed of Kick Te, FSKT) including 5 sets of 10-second high-speed Bandal-Tchagui kicks with maximum strength. Furthermore, the substrate metabolism of the endurance activity was measured by a gas analyzer, and the VCO2, VO2, VO2peak, HR, and HRpeak were measured. During and immediately after the test, the level of perception of fatigue was evaluated. Moreover, blood lactate levels were measured using a lactometer after the anaerobic and aerobic tests. After 28 days of receiving the supplement or placebo (5g/day) at the designated day times, the pre-test measurements were repeated. Repeated measures of ANOVA with between-group factor and Bonferroni post-hoc tests were used to compare the data.

There was no significant difference between the two supplement and placebo groups for anaerobic capacity, aerobic capacity, and substrate metabolism (p<0.05). Although, both groups (supplement and placebo) showed significant improvements in the time to exhaustion and the number of steps to exhaustion in the post-test compared to the pre-test, these improvements were significantly higher in the supplement group compared to the placebo (p<0.05).

During the research period, beta-alanine supplementation had only an effect on some performance indicators and probably more pronounced effects on the performance of elite athletes would be seen in the long term. However, this little gain can be important in professional athletes, and more studies are needed in this field for a concrete conclusion.

 Type 2 diabetes is a complex metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and glucose dysregulation. It is a major concern of the World Health Organization, affecting millions of people worldwide. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of  8 weeks of high-intensity interval training on the expression of activating transcription factor-6 (ATF-6) and C/EBP homologue (CHOP) proteins in liver tissue in rats with type 2 diabetes. 

  The current study was experimental with a post-test design with a control group. A number of 24 Wistar male rats, aged 6 weeks and weighing approximately 200-250 grams, were obtained from the Pasteur Institute of Iran. Rats were randomly divided into 3 groups of 8 high intensity interval training (HIIT) diabetic, diabetic control and healthy control. The training groups performed 5 HIIT training sessions on the treadmill during 8 weeks and each week (the training protocol was 8 weeks of interval training, 5 sessions per week with intense 2-minute intervals with 2-8 repetitions and 80-90 The percentage of maximum running speed and 1-minute rest intervals were performed with 50-56% of maximum running speed. After 48 hours from the last training session and after fasting days, all rats were anesthetized and liver tissue was harvested. The data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

 The results showed that ATF-6 protein levels in type 2 diabetic male rats did not change significantly after 8 weeks of high-intensity interval training (P = 0.73). But CHOP protein levels showed a significant increase after 8 weeks (P = 0.001). CHOP protein levels in the diabetic training group showed a non-significant decrease compared to the diabetic control group (P < 0.05), but in the diabetic training group compared to the healthy control group, it showed a significant increase (P = 0.001).  

 As a result, 8 weeks of high-intensity interval training can have beneficial effects on reducing endoplasmic reticulum stress in liver tissue caused by type 2 diabetes in diabetic rats. Furthermore, further research is needed to confirm these findings and explore the potential mechanisms involved.

Physical activity is one of the promising interventions with positive effects on the quality of sleep and cognitive function in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. With the development of various physical programs, including physical-cognitive combined training,, it seems that these dual interventions may better affect neurodegenerative diseases, such as MS. In the same direction this study aimed to investigate the quality of sleep and psychomotor Vigilance of patients with MS by performing combined aerobic-cognitive training (Brythonic) and conventional aerobic training (Aerotonic).

30 patients (22 women and 8 men) with Relapsing-Remitting and Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) less than four, an average age of 36.66±9.36 years, average height of 164.5±6.30 cm, average weight of 65.43 ± 9.80 kg and average body mass index 24.02 ± 3.02 kg/m2 were randomly divided into 3 groups of 10 people: Brythonic training, Aerotonic training, and control without training. Two groups, Brythonic and Aerotonic, during 10 weeks (20 sessions), two sessions per week, performed relevant online training at home, including 10 minutes of warm-up, 15 to 35 minutes of physical activities, and five minutes of cool-down. In the pre-test and also after 10 weeks of online practice at home (post-test), psychomotor vigilance test (PVT), and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), volunteer patients were measured. All the procedure was conducted under the supervision of neurologist with precision. Descriptive statistics (mean ± standard deviation) were used to analyze the data. To investigate the difference between the three groups and the intra-group differences before and after the training period, the repeated analysis of variance test with between-group factor was used and the significance level was considered P≥0.05.

Despite observing a relative improvement in most variables of the PVT test in the Brythonic group compared to the Aerotonic and control groups, these changes were not significant. Also, in the PSQI test, even though a 1-point improvement was observed in the sleep quality of patients in the Brythonic and Aerotonic groups, the changes were not significant.

This study showed that although the repetition of motivational words with aerobic movements in a short training period does not have a significant effect on the quality of sleep and the levels of psychomotor vigilance of patients with MS, due to the improving trend in the Brythonic training group, it is probably suggesting that significant changes in these variables may require more duration or intensity of exercise or cognitive interventions..

The use of new training for improve the learning of beginners in executive skills such as shooting is one of the topics of interest in recent researches. The aim of research was to investigate the effect of a course of resistance training and neurofeedback on improving shooting skills and neural performance of military beginners. For this purpose, 25 people (mean age 20 years and weight 73.8 kg) were randomly selected and using the pre-test-post-test plan, shooting score, and supraspinal nerve function. Using TMS, before and after 12 sessions of resistance training with SMR and Alpha, it was studied in five resistance, resistance-neurofeedback, neurofeedback, Sham, and control groups. Multiple variance analysis in the graphpadprism9 software showed that in intra-group changes, the shooting score in resistance-neurofeedback (P<0.0001), resistance (P = 0.0229), and neurofeedback (P = 0.0241) increased, and the amplitude decreased significantly in the resistance-neurofeedback (P = 0.0115), but latency increased only in resistance training (P>0.05). The follow-up test between groups in the post showed that the changes in the shooting score and the amplitude in the resistance-neurofeedback were not significantly different compared to other groups. Considering the importance of muscle strength and brain functions regarding the proper performance of the shooter and according to the results of this research, it can be said that the use of training methods to strengthen muscles and improve the function of brain waves related to shooting skills, probably at the same time Strengthening the supraspinal nerve function improves part of the learning process and skill implementation in this field.

Athletes use diverse strategies, including caffeine supplementation, to reduce fatigue and improve their performance. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of the post-activation potentiation method and caffeine supplementation on peripheral fatigue after Wikstrom's fatigue protocol in young male volleyball players.

In this study, forty male volleyball players with an average age of 27.33 ± 1.78 years and an average weight of 76.5 ± 7.45 kg participated. They were divided into four experimental groups: a group that used only the PAP method (n=10), a group that consumed only caffeine (n=10), a group that both performed PAP and consumed caffeine (n=10), and a control group (n=10). For the groups receiving caffeine, a caffeine supplement was administered at a dose of 6 mg per kilogram of body weight, 15 minutes before starting the protocol. PAP exercises were performed at an intensity of 70% of the one-repetition maximum. Blood samples were taken one hour before and one hour after completing the Wikstrom six-station protocol. All subjects participated in this study voluntarily and they had no illness or injury at the start of the research.

The results of the present study showed that the implementation of PAP along with caffeine showed a significant increase in the variables of time to exhaustion and the number of rounds (p<0.05), while the rate of ammonia showed a significant decrease (p<0.05). In contrast, uric acid showed no significant difference (p>0.05).

The results of the present study, showed that the use of caffeine reduces peripheral fatigue. Also, since the use of PAP did not have an adverse effect on the participant's performance, athletes can use this method concurrently with caffeine to improve their performance in endurance activities.

Training of athletes can be quantified by training load. In recent years, the concept of training load has received more attention, and this is important because the necessity of monitoring the athlete in line with the required adaptations of the desired sport's needs is of great importance. Therefore, studies considering the relationship between training load and the risk of injury and overtraining are more emphasized. The purpose of the present study is to answer the question of whether it is possible to prevent injuries by controlling the exercise load?

Articles were searched in the PubMed Medline and Science direct and Google scholar  database and keywords injury, exercise load, and combination of words Injury& Prediction and  Load & Injury 2016 and 2022. Only experimental and semi-experimental studies were reviewed.

A total of 25 articles were selected among 507 studies based on the inclusion criteria. Most of the reviewed studies introduced the ACWR criterion as an important criterion in measuring training load and reported its relationship as an injury risk factor. These studies investigated the relationship between training and competition load and athletes' injuries. The results of the reviewed studies showed that the ACWR criterion is an important criterion in measuring the training load and this criterion is introduced as an injury risk factor.

Results of the present study showed training load is related to the possibility of injury in athletes, but there is still a debate in scientific circles about the exact way of this relationship. Additionally, the best way to measure load training is the measurement of internal and external load together. Results also illustrated that the pattern of impact of training load on the probability of injury in athletes in individual and team sports is different.  In order to consider the principle of individual differences in the probability of injury, it is necessary to use criteria that can report the internal load of each athlete individually.

Recent research has shown that stress of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in liver tissue plays a significant role in development of type 2 diabetes. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 8 weeks high-intensity interval training on two known markers of liver ER stress in rats with type 2 diabetes.

Twenty four male Wistar rats (8 weeks age and 200-250 g weight) were used. The "healthy control" group (8 mice) had free access to standard food and drinking water for 13 weeks. Another 16 mice were fed a high-fat diet for 4 weeks. Then these 16 rats were made diabetic with streptozotocin and allocated in two groups: "diabetic control" (maintenance of a high-fat diet for 9 weeks without exercise) and "diabetic exercise" (maintenance of a high-fat diet, one week familiarization with treadmill and then 8 weeks high intensity interval training). Then, the expression levels of eukaryotic initiator factor 2-alpha (eIF-2-α) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in the liver tissue of all rats were measured by western blot method.

Blood glucose level and expression of both eIF2-α and TNF-α were significantly higher in the "diabetic control" than the "healthy control" (P≤0.05). The "diabetic exercise" group showed significantly lower glucose level than the the "diabetic control" group (P≤0.05). However, neither eIF-2-α nor TNF-α showed significant change in "diabetic exercise" compared to the "diabetic control" group.

Intense intermittent exercise with the parameters used in this research could not change two stress markers of liver ER in type 2 diabetic rats.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of combined exercise on aortic atherosclerosis and FGF23 in male rats with chronic renal failure.

In this study, 20 male Wistar rats (mean weight 10 ± 250  g) were induced by NX5 / 6 method for chronic renal failure. After 2 weeks of recovery, they were randomly divided into two groups of control (n= 10) and combined training (n= 10) and performed a combined training protocol for 8 weeks. The combined training protocol consisted of two resistance training exercises on a ladder with 2 sets and 6 repetitions with percentages of body weight and aerobic exercise included 30 minutes of low-intensity treadmill activity.

The results showed that combined exercise reduced aortic atherosclerosis and decreased plaques, and FGF23 decreased significantly (p = 0.001). Parathoromon hormone also significantly decreased (p = 0.041) and calcium and phosphorus significantly decreased (p = 0.004 and p = 0.005, respectively).

Overall, the results showed that combined training could decrease FGF23, parathoromon hormone, calcium and phosphor on aortic atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease indices in chronic renal failure patients.

The purpose of this study was determine the effect of upper body plyometric training on anaerobic power and record of 25 meters front crawl performance in 10 years old swimmer boys. 16 swimmer boys chosen voluntarily (The mean age was 9.9 ± 0.7 years ، weight 45.9 ±9 kg , Height 149.8 ± 5 cm، BMI  is 19.20 ± 3 Kg / m 2 ) And Subjects divided into two groups of training (n=8) and control(n=8).Before and after the implementation of the protocol investigate test 25 meters front crawl performance  at the distance 10, 20 and 25  metrs  and the number of hand strocke to check the performance of the swimming also anaerobic hand wingiting test function was evaluated. To analyze data, used the covariance test.The results showed six weeks upper body plyometric training Performance Indicators an hands Front crawl Including Peak power increased Significantly (18%) but the average power increase (7%) was not significant (p>0.05). Also, Swimming performance at of 10 meters) 8% (,10 to 20)6%(and 25 meters distance(3/80%) growth in compare to control group that was significant(p <0.05) As well as in the number of hand strocke, Plyometric training group although had growth in swim 10 meters (11%), 10-20 meters (7.5%) and in 25 meters distance (5.33%) but the isnt significance (p>0.05). results indicate that six week upper body plyometric traning to an increase and improvement in the measured parameters, and can be used as a complementary training method in young swimmers.

Modern training methods to improve the learning of beginners in executive skills such as shooting is one of the topics of interest in recent researches. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a course of resistance training and neurofeedback on shooting indices related to psychological performance in military beginners. By using pretest -posttest plan and using the electronic scoring system, the shooting performance of 25 beginners, before and after 12 sessions of resistance training and reinforcement of SMR wave in C4 and reinforcement of alpha wave in F3 was studied .Statistical analysis was done using Graph Pad Prism 9 software and considering 5% measurement error, and it was found that training interventions increased the shooting score in resistance(P=0.0011), resistance-neurofeedback(p<0.0001) and neurofeedback(P=0.0014) groups; decrease in shooting speed in resistance (P=0.0014), resistance-neurofeedback(P<0.0001) and neurofeedback(P=0.0372) groups, increased stability in resistance(P=0.0005), resistance-neurofeedback(P<0.0001) and neurofeedback(p=0.029) groups. But accuracy did not change significantly. Also, the follow-up test between groups in the post-test showed the changes in the shooting speed in the resistance-neurofeedback group compared to the resistance group(P=0.0124) and the stability in the resistance-neurofeedback group compared to the resistance group(P=0.0315) and neurofeedback(p =0.0001) has been better.

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) has been shown to be suitable for studying the effects of exercise on multiple sclerosis pathophysiology. Considering the role of Bax and BCL2 proteins in cell apoptosis, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of swimming training before EAE induction on cell apoptosis in the thymus gland.

Totally, 30 mice were randomly divided into three groups (training+EAE, control+EAE, and control). The training program began (30 minutes/day, five days/week, and four weeks). To induce EAE, subcutaneous injection of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide was used for immunization and intraperitoneal injection of pertussis toxin was performed. Bax and BCL2 proteins were measured in thymus tissue.

EAE induction caused a significant increase in expression of Bax (p=0.001) and a significant decrease in expression of BCL2 (p=0.012) compared to the control group. The expression of Bax in the training+EAE group had a significant decrease (p=0.0001) compared to the control+EAE group and a significant increase compared to the control group (p=0.003). The expression of BCL2 in the training+EAE had a significant increase compared to the control+EAE group (p=0.001) and a significant decrease compared to the control group (p=0.01). The Bax/BCL2 in the control+EAE group increased significantly compared to the control group, and this ratio decreased significantly in the training+EAE group compared to the control+EAE group (p=0.002).

A swimming training before EAE reduces the severity of the disease and has modulating effects on apoptosis and inflammation.

Conducting exercises with various methods can have different effects on the body tissue. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of one session of resistance training with high and low intensities, while both restricting and not restricting the blood flow, on the levels of irisin and glycerol serum in trained male subjects.

This quasi-experimental study with a cross-group design and repeated measurements, was designed to determine the effects of one session of high and low-intensity exercise, with and without the blood flow restriction, on the levels of irisin and glycerol serum. For this purpose, 10 trained male participants with the age of 25±1.75 year, fat percentage of 15.7±4.7, and weight of 76.75 ± 7.95 kg were randomly selected from the available subjects. The subjects performed four resistance training protocols in 48 hours. Training protocols included: high-intensity resistance training (%75 1RM) with blood flow restriction. High-intensity resistance training (%75 1RM) without blood flow restriction. Low-intensity resistance training (%30 1RM) with blood flow restriction. And finally low intensity resistance training (%30 1RM) without blood flow restriction. Subsequently, after performing each protocol, levels of irisin and glycerol serum were examined using the ELISA method. Data were analyzed using repeated measure ANOVA.

Although the changes in irisin levels were incremental, these changes were not significant. The changes in the level of glycerol, as a lipolysis level index, had significant changes due to different resistance training protocols (P≤0.05). There was also no significant relationship between irisin and glycerol secretion.

It seems that resistance activities with high and low intensity, with and without blood flow restriction, have no significant effects on the regulatory mechanisms of white fat browning through irisin secretion in trained men, but it causes more lipolysis.

 The preconception and during pregnancy periods are now thought to be critical for the long-term effects on fetal development and postnatal growth and may predispose offspring to phenotypic changes and multi-diseases later in life. Moreover, physical activity and different kinds of stress during pregnancy are two important maternal behavioral lifestyles that can influence in health or disease of mothers and fetuses. While there are still many questions about the optimum intensity of maternal exercise, exercise during pregnancy has been considered as a positive environmental factor in the prevention of chronic diseases in the next generation. Several pieces of research have shown the positive effects of short-term and long-term exercise on the gene expression of offspring. High-intensity interval training is a form of cardiovascular exercise in which short periods of intense exercise with less-intense recovery periods. Animal model studies recently highlighted which pregnant mothers could tolerate this intensity during pregnancy. It has recently been determined that the Sirtuins family has a cardioprotective role in the heart. There is evidence that Sirt6 protects the heart from developing diseases through negative regulation of the insulin growth factor (IGF) signaling in the myocardial cells. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the role of high-intensity maternal exercise before and during pregnancy on the expression of cardiac genes Sirt6 and IGF2 as factors of cardiac health in adult female offspring.

Twenty-four female Wistar rats which never experienced a pregnancy, aged 8 weeks, were randomly divided into three maternal groups; mothers sedentary (control group, n = 8), mothers who exercised only before pregnancy (n = 8), and mothers who exercised before and during pregnancy (n = 8). High-intensity interval training consists of running on the treadmill with the speed of 18m/min at 10˚ inclination for 3 mins (85–95% ofVO2max), switching with active recovery, and the speed of 13m/min (65% of VO2max) at 0˚ inclination for 5 days/week which is in accordance with the overload principle; the duration and number of bouts were increased every week. High-intensity-interval training was performed in two parts, the first part included six weeks of HIIT prior to pregnancy and then 3 weeks of HIIT during pregnancy. Two females with one male were mated for two days. After pregnancy, the animals were kept individually per cage to notice the birth process, number, and birth weight of pups. Then the offspring were allocated to pup groups according to their mother groups at the end of the breastfeeding duration (3 weeks old). Ten-week-old rats were anesthetized with Xylazine (3 mg/kg) and Ketamine (30 mg/kg) and the left ventricle was separated after whole blood extraction. The Sirt6 gene expression and IGF-2 gene expression were measured by the RT-PCR method and the data were analyzed by the one-way ANOVA method.

The present study showed that there was no statistically significant in the sex birth weight (P = 0.246) of pup groups as previously published. Also, maternal HIIT did not lead to significant differences in the number of pups (P = 0.16) between different maternal groups. Maternal HIIT before and during pregnancy has effects on the Sirt6 gene expression (P=0.0001) in the heart of female offspring and has no significant effect on IGF-2 gene expression (P=0.268). 

The consequences of maternal exercise in offspring have been investigated as a positive maternal behavior during pregnancy. We have indicated in our previous study that maternal exercise before and during pregnancy has positive effects on the cardioprotective genes of male offspring’s hearts. In the present study, we broaden the investigation to determine the cardioprotective effect of maternal exercise in female offspring. Our finding indicated that maternal high-intensity interval training leads to an increase of Sirt6 mRNA in the female similar to male offspring. Scientific evidence supports a relationship between birth weight and postnatal health outcomes and mentions birth weight as a vital factor in adult multi-disease. Consistent with the previous study, our study showed that maternal high-intensity interval training did not affect the birth weight of offspring. The benefits of high-intensity interval training on the heart are the reduction of glucose consumption as a source of energy so high-intensity interval training compared to traditional moderate-intensity continuous training is a suitable way to promote heart health. It is well established that maternal exercise during pregnancy improves insulin sensitivity in adult offspring. One of the protective factors of maternal exercise is the decreased cardiac glucose uptake in offspring, but its molecular mechanism is not well understood. It is well-known that one of the important pathways of the cardioprotective effect of exercise is an activation of the Sirtuins family. It has been demonstrated that one of the intergenerational effects of exercise in cardiomyocytes is increasing Sirt6 in the neonatal heart. Therefore, one of the possible mechanisms to increase the expression of the SIRT6 gene observed in the present study to improve the cardiovascular health of offspring by maternal HIIT before and during pregnancy is to reduce glucose consumption as fuel and reduce metabolic pressure on the heart of offspring. Likewise, we indicated that maternal high-intensity training could increase Sirt6 in the heart of adult female offspring. Thus, the above findings suggest maternal high-intensity exercise is a positive maternal behavior before and during pregnancy, which can affect the health of the heart in the next generation.

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disease that is spreading rapidly around the world (1). Diabetic neuropathy is a common complication of diabetes, with progressive destruction of the sensory and motor nerves of the lower extremities in these patients. Peripheral nerve problems in these patients also lead to functional deficits and muscle mobility (5, 6). In general, it is agreed that metabolic and vascular disorders caused by diabetes lead to peripheral neuropathy and nerve damage in these patients (8). Based on the hypotheses that cause diabetic neuropathy, it can be said that the use of exercise can be effective in improving diabetic neuropathy by improving vascular function (13, 14) and controlling blood sugar (13-15). The present study was to determine the effect of a period of functional training on blood sugar control and nerve conduction velocity in patients with diabetic neuropathic disorders. Diabetic neuropathy is a common complication of diabetes, with progressive destruction of the sensory and motor nerves of the lower extremities in these patients. Peripheral nerve problems in these patients also lead to functional deficits and muscle mobility (5, 6). In general, it is agreed that metabolic and vascular disorders caused by diabetes lead to peripheral neuropathy and nerve damage in these patients (8). Based on the hypotheses that cause diabetic neuropathy, it can be said that the use of exercise can be effective on diabetic neuropathy by improving vascular function (13, 14) and controlling blood sugar (13-15). The present study was to determine the effect of a period of functional training on blood sugar control and nerve conduction velocity in patients with type 2 diabetes.

In the present quasi-experimental study, 12 patients with type 2 diabetes living in Karaj (45-65 years old) were selected as the research sample and randomly divided into 2 groups of 6 exercise and control intervention. The training protocol in the present study was a researcher-made protocol that adjusted the volume and intensity of training based on exercise recommendations for patients with type 2 diabetes. The training program was performed for 8 weeks and 3 sessions per week. These exercises were designed as exercises at home. The exercises were designed to improve general endurance, endurance, strength, muscle flexibility and balance and with the approach of improving the function of the neuromuscular system and were designed as a station (20). In order to study blood variables 48 hours before and 48 hours after the intervention, fasting blood sampling was performed and electromyography devices were used to evaluate the nerve conduction velocity (21). Dependent t-test and independent t-test were used for statistical analysis; Statistical analysis was measured using SPSS software version 26 and the significance level was P <0.05.

According to the results of paired sample t-test  after the training period, a significant decrease where founded in fasting blood sugar (P = 0.046), fasting insulin (P = 0.033) and insulin resistance (P = 0.028) and a significant increase There was founded in median sensory nerve conduction velocity (P = 0.037) and a median motor nerve conduction velocity (P = 0.001) in the exercise group compared to baseline values, but no significant difference was observed in the measured variables in the control group ( P < 0.05). In comparison between the changes, the results of independent t-test showed that there were significant differences in fasting blood sugar (P = 0.007), fasting insulin (P = 0.019), insulin resistance (P = 0.005), Median sensory nerve conduction velocity (P = 0.005) and median motor nerve conduction velocity (P <0.001) compared to the control group.

The results of the present study showed that after the training period, a significant decrease in levels of fasting blood sugar, fasting insulin and insulin resistance was observed compared to the control group without exercise. Due to the pathology of type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance in insulin-sensitive tissues such as muscle tissue and adipose tissue, blood glucose levels increase in these people, and due to increased hyperglycemia, diabetic patients develop complications of diabetes, including neuropathy (7). Even a session of physical activity has been reported to stimulate glucose uptake by upregulating GLUT4 levels in sarcoma. This effect is independent of the effect of insulin and glucose uptake continues for several hours after the end of physical activity. Physical activity also increases insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle; this effect lasts for several hours after the end of physical activity and is clearly dependent on insulin and insulin function in target tissues (22). Regarding the chronic effect of regular exercise on blood sugar control in patients with diabetes, it can be said that regular exercise helps control blood sugar and thus reduces hyperglycemia in these people due to increased cell sensitivity to insulin-dependent molecular pathways. Which improve insulin signaling (ACC and MAPKs PI3-kinase) as well as insulin-independent pathways (Akt and mTOR AMP-kinase), control glycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes and prevent the complications of diabetes (1, 13, 23). In investigating the effect of exercise on nerve conduction velocity, the results of our study showed that after the training period, a significant increase in sensory and motor nerve conduction velocity was observed compared to the pretest and control group; The results of our study showed the effect of almost twice the effect of exercise on increasing the conduction velocity of the median motor nerve compared to the conduction velocity of the median sensory nerve. The conduction of a shock in the human nerve depends on the electrochemical activity of single nerve fibers within the nerve (26). In their study, Galliro et al. (2021) reported that the rate of nerve conduction decreases in diabetic neuropathy, especially in the sensory fields in the lower extremities (18). It has been shown that metabolic abnormalities seen in impaired glucose tolerance may lead to changes in neural conduction (27). Given that diabetic neuropathy is associated with poor glycemic control, and in our study, increased nerve rate was negatively associated with insulin resistance, an increase in nerve conduction velocity can be justified; Research on laboratory animals has shown that exercise improves nerve function through adaptations in the presynaptic and postsynaptic sections (29). It has also been reported that impaired neural conduction in diabetic patients with mild to moderate peripheral neuropathy may be improved by drug doses of antioxidant supplements such as vitamin E (30). Although in the present study, factors related to free radicals, inflammatory factors or total antioxidant levels were not measured and were one of the limitations of the present study, but according to previous research results that show antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of exercise in diabetes (31), it can be said that exercise, like antioxidant vitamins, can improve nerve function. Overall, the results of the present study showed the positive effects of functional exercises on metabolic indicators and also increased nerve conduction velocity, which indicates the positive effects of functional exercises on preventing the complications of diabetic neuropathy.

The aim of this study was to the effect of aquatic activity and alogenic bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells fortified with Platelet-Rich Plasma in treatment of Achilles tendon in rat.  74 Sprague-Dawley rats were selected and tendon injury was formed in 69 of them. Subsequently, these rats were randomly divided into 8 groups and 5 rats which were without any injuries were chosen as the control group.  72 hours after the surgery, isolated cells from bone marrow and PRP were injected to the groups via catheters. The experimental groups had aquatic activity for 8 weeks. At the end of the eighth week, the Achilles tendon was separated and H&E and Mason Trichrome were used for special staining to assess the tendon healing. The results show there is a significant difference between the studied groups on the Achilles tendon healing. Also, results from histopathological examination indicated that there is a significant difference between the studied groups on the number of fibroblasts, collagen deposition, cellularity and tendon diameter. It could be generally concluded that, using these treatment methods could help with the tendon healing through bounding with target cells membrane receptors such as fibroblasts, mesenchymal stem cells and endothelial, which leads to activation of a series of intracellular proteins and as a result of their activities some reactions happen that lead into formation of matrix and collagen synthesis.

Resistance training with blood flow restriction stimulates the response and release of anabolic hormones and increases hypertrophy in restricted muscles, however, the effect of this training method on adjacent non-restricted muscles has not been studied well. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of 4 weeks of resistance training along with blood flow restriction on anatomical cross-sectional area (CSA) of adjacent non-restricted muscles in active young men.

Sixteen young men aged 25-30 years old were randomly divided into two groups (n=8) high-intensity resistance training (HIRT) and low-intensity resistance training with blood flow restriction (L-BFR). Both groups performed bench press and squat exercises three sessions per week during four weeks. In HIRT group, three sets of 10 repetitions (75%1RM), and in the L-BFR, four sets of 30, 15, 15 and 15 repetitions (30%1RM) was performed during every exercise. For L-BFR group, the restriction pressure was considered as 50% resting atrial occlusion pressure (AOP) at the beginning of the exercises and this pressure gradually was increased to 80% AOP during four weeks. At the beginning and 72 hours after the last training session, the CSA of triceps brachii, pectoralis major, quadriceps and gluteus maximus were calculated by MRI. Data were analyzed by paired sample t-test and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) test at the significance level of p<0.05.

Four weeks of training lead to significant increase in the cross-sectional area of triceps brachii, quadriceps, pectoralis major and gluteus maximus in the HIRT (4%, 7.5%, 10%, 10% respectively) and L-BFR (11%, 12%, 18%, 22% respectively) groups.

It seems that the anabolic effects caused by blood flow restriction exercises are not limited locally and can be transferred to the adjacent muscles involved in the exercise that are not directly affected by the blood flow restriction.

as getting old, neuromuscular adaptations decrease and the fall rates increase. Analyzing the temporal patterns of muscle synergy can provide a useful framework for describing and interpreting neuromuscular system’s adaptation. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of unstable resistance training with blood flow restriction on the temporal patterns and the number of muscle synergies of elderly with a history of falling while walking.

27 elderly men (62±1.5 years old) with a history of falling were randomly assigned into three groups of unstable resistance training without blood flow restriction, unstable resistance training with blood flow restriction and control. The training program consisted of squat training with body weight on unstable surface for 4 weeks and three sessions per week. Before and after the intervention, electromyography signals from eight muscles of the lower limb were recorded during walking to extract the number of synergies, the amount of muscle use, the duration of muscle use, and the stability of neural commands. Kruskal-Wallis test, Paired Wilcoxon test and analysis of covariance test with Bonferroni post hoc test were used (P˂0/05).

Results showed that although there is significant difference in the number of muscle synergy between the control group and the resistance training group on the unstable surface with blood flow restriction (p=0.002) and without blood flow restriction (p=0.013); But no statistically significant difference was observed between the two training groups (P=0.23). Also, the amount of muscles use and duration of muscles use decreased in both training groups with blood flow restriction (P=0.0001) and without blood flow restriction (P=0.0001). However, statistically significant difference was observed only in the stability variable of neural commands between both training groups with and without blood flow restriction (P=0.005).

Unstable resistance training with blood flow restriction only improves the stability index of neural commands during walking compared to unstable resistance training without blood flow restriction in elderly people with falls’ history.

Impaired Neutrophil-Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR) index and blood platelet count and its persistence are one of the complications of Covid-19 disease. Exercise with appropriate metabolic and mechanical pressure (combined training) is a regulatory factor for the Neutrophil-Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR) index and increases platelets. The aimed of this study was to investigated the effect of a combined training course during the recovery period on the NLR index and platelets of a patient’s recovery from Covid-19 disease.

27 recuperate individuals from Covid-19 disease (with a mean age of 35±7 years and BMI of 26.48 ± 3.18 kg/m2) by the matching method in two groups of combined training (N=14) and control group (N=13) were located. Exercises group performed combined exercises 3 sessions per week for 8 weeks. Before the first training session and 24 hours after the last training session of the fourth and eighth weeks, blood samples were taken from the subjects. Repeated measures ANOVA and Bonferroni post hoc test was used for examining data at the significance level of P<0.05.

The level of NLR index and blood platelets after 8 weeks of combined training, although there was a partial improvement, they were not statistically significant (P>0.05). Bonferroni test showed that the effect of time between all weeks was significant (P<0.05). Also, changes in weight and BMI were not significant (P>0.05).

It seems that combined sports training can to some extent boost and rev the return of the body's immune system to its normal state in people who have recovered from Covid-19.

 Acquisition of cycling skills in autistic and healthy people has different results depending on the training conditions and type of educational intervention. Most people with autism do not learn this skill. The present study aimed to compare the effect of seven sessions of a special training program with the frequency of massed and distributed practice on the acquisition of cycling skills in autistic and healthy boys living in Tehran City. 

 24 autistic boys (Mean±SD age:11.92±2.55 years) and 12 healthy boys (Mean±SD age: 9.33±2.38 years) living in Tehran City were available and, based on inclusion criteria, selected and after performing a pretest of cycling skills proficiency randomly into two homogeneous subgroups with different training frequencies including massed practice (7 consecutive one-hour sessions) and distributed practice (course every other day) was divided. The exercise was performed individually on a regular bicycle without support equipment. After 7 training sessions, repeat the proficiency test as at least 30 meters of independent driving, the ability to brake, start, and turn was done. Data were analyzed using percentage calculation, dependent t-test, and analysis of covariance at the significance level of 0.05.

 The results of the dependent t-test showed that the acquisition of cycling skills with massed practice in autism (0.01) and healthy (0.01) groups and distributed practice in autism (0.02) and healthy (0.00) groups, after the intervention, the educational program had a significant increase compared to the pretest. Also, the results of the analysis of covariance showed that between the effects of the group (0.106) frequency (0.063) and interaction group & frequency (0.269), there is no significant difference in skill acquisition.

 Findings indicate that regardless of the lack of effect of exercise frequency and individual differences in autistic and healthy groups, the training program presented in this study led to the acquisition of cycling skills. Therefore, educators and families can be suggested to use the current program as a method with the lowest cost and highest efficiency to acquire cycling skills in autistic and healthy people.

Increased strength after a period of resistance training or following relatively intense contractions (post-activation potentiation) and decreased strength after repetitive contractions (fatigue) or after static stretching movements (post-activation depression) are not only related to the muscle but also the nerve system. Over the past years, numerous methods such as surface electromyography (sEMG), evoked spinal reflex recording, and single motor unit recording has been used to prove the role of neurological factors in transient and sustainable changes in strength. Over the past 30 years, new methods such as TMS have been used to investigate neural mechanisms in response and adaptation to resistance exercise, and the importance of evoked and central nervous system activation in the occurrence of exercise fatigue and adaptation induced by resistance training has been demonstrated.

 In this study, the fundamentals and applications of TMS are briefly discussed.

The results showed that the level of excitability, especially in the motor cortex, increases following relatively intense contractions and after a period of resistance training but decreases after exhausting exercise and does not change after static stretching movements.

Although TMS is a valuable method for quantifying the contribution of neurological factors, it could not uncover whole mechanisms and adaptations that occur following the intervention, and a combination of methods in the field of neuroscience- should be used to provide more insight into cortical function and plasticity in response to acute and chronic exercise.

 older adults show high levels of co-contraction in lower extremities’ muscles due to the deterioration of the neuromuscular and sensory motor systems. Increased co-contraction leads to disruption of daily motor activities, especially movements in which joint stability is critical; therefore, it is important to pay attention to training programs to strengthen muscles and increase intramuscular coordination in older adults. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of unstable resistance training with and without blood flow restriction on ankle muscles’ co-contraction of older adults.

 27 older adults (62 ± 1.5 years old) were assigned into three groups of unstable resistance training without blood flow restriction, unstable resistance training with blood flow restriction (72± 9 mm Hg) and control. The training program consisted of three to four sets of 15 repetitions of body weight squats for four weeks and three sessions per each week, which were gradually added to the program by 5% of each person's body weight. Pre- and post- intervention, the electromyography signals of Tibialis Anterior and soleus muscles were recorded during walking in order to determine the rates of agonist and antagonist activity and muscles’ co-contraction. For data analysis, repeated measures analysis of variance and analysis of covariance tests with Bonferroni post hoc test were used at 0.05 of level of significance.

 The results showed that in post-test, the activity of the Tibialis Anterior muscle of both training groups was significantly increased compared to pre-test. Also, statistically significant difference was found in co-contraction rates of both groups in post-test. The results of Bonferroni post hoc test showed a statistically significant difference in reduction of co-contraction rates between the resistance training group with blood flow restriction and the control group (P=0.015) and between resistance training group without blood flow restriction with the control group (P=0.005). But no statistically significant difference was found between the two training groups.

 Resistance training on unstable surface with and without blood flow restriction is associated with increased agonist muscle activity, which leads to a decrease in ankle muscles’ co-contraction in older adults.

Due to the role of neural adaptations in the primary stages of resistance training, this study aimed to determine the adaptations of cortical-spinal excitatory and inhibitory pathways in strength changes in agonist and antagonist muscles after 4 weeks of resistance training using TMS. 10 healthy untrained individuals participated in this study voluntarily. The training protocol included 4-week of seated one-arm dumbbell curl training with 80% of a one-repetition maximum. To assess MEP and CSP, the area under the curve (AURC) was used, which was obtained based on different intensities of the TMS. Repeated-measures ANOVA and Bonferroni were used to analyze the data. The results showed a 21% and 31% increase in agonist muscle strength in weeks 2 and 4 respectively. In contrast, the antagonist muscle just showed a 15% increase in strength in the fourth week. The area under the MEP curve showed a significant increase after 4 weeks of training (p <0.001) in biceps but not in triceps. In addition, CSP showed a significant decrease in biceps and triceps after 4-week (p> 0.05). However, the changes in corticospinal function were not associated with increased muscle strength. The results of this study showed that cortical-spinal responses to resistance training in the upper body are not limited to trained muscles and the nervous system to increase strength by modulating the cortical areas creates different adaptations for both agonist and antagonist muscles.

Menstrual cycle may affect the training of strength and muscle size. The aim ofthe present study was to determine the effect of exercise volume distribution in the 2 follicular and lutealphases of the menstrual cycle on serum Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1) and muscle mass in women.

in this semi experimental study’ 20 amenorrheic women with a mean age of 22±5 years, withoutcontraceptive use and a history of eight weeks of resistance training were selected. Each subject had8 training sessions on one leg in the first 14 days of menstruation and 2 training sessions on the second14 days of menstruation (training in the follicular period) and the other leg had 2 training sessions on thefirst 14 days of menstruation and 8 training sessions on the second 14 days of menstruation (training inthe luteal period). The training protocol was consist of unilateral leg extension.

the quadriceps Muscle diameter (according to pretest size) in follicular training (FT) (0.67±0.34(cm)) was higher than luteal training(LT) (0.46, 0.41 cm) (P=0.012). Also, insulin-like growth factor increasedin both groups (13%) regardless of the type of exercise schedule (P> 0.001).

According to this study it is recommended that follicular based training may cause more musclehypertrophy and maximum strength than luteal based training in young amenorrheic women whodo not take birth control pills.

The fetal period is an important stage in a person’s life. Exercise during pregnancyhas been considered as a positive factor in preventing chronic diseases in adulthood. The aim ofthis study was to investigate the role of maternal high intensity exercise before and during pregnancy onserum levels of lipid profile of adult offspring.

Twenty-four rats (170-200g) were divided into three maternal groups: Control (C),exercise Before Pregnancy (BP) and exercise before and during pregnancy (BDP). Exercise performed beforepregnancy for six weeks and during pregnancy for three weeks; one minute with 80% -95% vo2maxswitching with two minutes of active recovery (65% vo2max) for five days/week. After end of the trainingbirth process and breastfeeding, the offspring were divided according to theirs’s mother group and theywere kept until adult age. The serum levels of LDL, HDL, TG and Cho were measured by enzymic method.

The one-way ANOVA result showed that maternal exercise before and during pregnancy significantlyreduced LDL, Cho and LDL/HDL cholesterol ratio in male (P=0.03, P=0.2, P=0.04) and female(P=0.00, P=0.02, P=0.04) offspring.

This finding suggests that maternal high-intensity-interval training as an appropriate environmentalintervention can help to improve the health of the next generation.