amir saed mucheshi

Bijar County is situated in the eastern part of the Kurdistan Province and comprises three districts: Central, Cheng Almas, and Korani, along with 11 rural villages. This region is characterized by its location along the hills of western Iran, with approximately one-third of its territory being mountainous. Recent archaeological excavations conducted by the Cultural Heritage Organization of Kurdistan Province have uncovered artifacts spanning from prehistoric times to the Islamic era, including 71 sites attributed to the Iron Age. However, the cultural materials and distinctive features of the region remain inadequately understood and articulated. The primary aim of this study is to investigate the relationships between Iron Age settlements and geographical environmental factors, as well as the various types of livelihoods present. Data for this research is gathered through fieldwork, satellite imagery, GIS mapping, and library resources, and is analyzed using a descriptive-analytical approach. The study of Iron Age settlement patterns in Bijar focuses on aspects such as elevation, slope, access to water resources, and topographical features. The central research question is: What influence did environmental factors have on the establishment, distribution, and cultural interactions of Iron Age settlements in the Bijar area? By analyzing the data collected and generated through GIS mapping based on available information, the study aims to provide insights into this question. The predominant flat, mountainous, and semi-mountainous landscapes of the region have been utilized since the Iron Age; a period marked by significant enhancements in human adaptation to the natural environment. A critical inquiry arises regarding the processes of formation and distribution of sites, particularly in the northeast, central, and southwestern areas, which exhibit the highest population densities. Given the region’s defining characteristics—such as altitude, slope, water availability, and land utilization, most inhabitants reside at elevations below 2000 meters. These environmental conditions underpin the establishment of permanent settlements that rely on agriculture (both irrigated and rainfed), livestock rearing, and seasonal-nomadic lifestyles, leading to the development of herding practices. 

In recent years, an increasing number of archaeological investigations have produced new evidence for the prehistoric development (both in chronology and settlement patterns) in the westernmost provinces of Iran. Prior to the commencement of the MPAP an earlier survey in the Marivan region had been carried out by the Department of Archaeology at Bu Ali Sina University in Hamadan (Iran). Research focused on the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods and, unfortunately, evidence from the Chalcolithic periods is yet to be published. The Marivan Plain Survey Project, by Morteza Zamani Dadaneh from the University of Kurdistan, Kurdish Studies Institute, conducted a first season of systematic survey for four weeks in the summer of 2018. The goal of MPAP is to reassess previous survey work in the region. Archaeological project of Marivan plain in 2018 resulted in identifying 60 sites from Neolithic to more recent time. Among identified sites: 1 site dating back to PPN Neolithic, 14 site to chalcolithic period (early, middle and late), 2 site to Bronze Age probably, 11 site to Iron Age, 28 site to historic (Parthian) period and 12 site to Islamic era. Regarding the settlement pattern of prehistoric sites (Neolithic and chalcolithic period), it become clear that all prehistoric sites distributed in the northern and southern shore of Zeribar lake. Most probably such pattern influenced from Zeribar sea level and access to the fertilized agricultural lands in this area in Neolithic and chalcolithic times. But the distribution pattern of historic and Islamic sites is somewhat different from prehistoric pattern and is similar to pattern of nowadays residential areas. Current and historic/Islamic residential area placed close to permanent water sources in the narrow valleys surrounded the Zeribar lake. Of course, part of the Marivan Plain is located in the east of the current Marivan City, which is far from Zarivar Lake, and dispersed settlements in this section formed on the edge of the main river, one of the branches of the Garan River

The Chalcolithic sequence of the Central Zagros, which is designed primarily using the potsherds recovered andother associated material culture has long been used by researchers as a framework for the mentioned region. Thechronology is originally suggested based on some incomplete excavations and thus, it is now apparently in needof revision, at least in some parts. Part of the problem goes back to the phase known as Taherabad (Teherabad) orGodin VIII, a phase that suffers the most from the lack of secure chronology. What is discussed here is the natureof Godin VIII phase, so that it will be argued here that based on the archaeological data recorded from the CentralZagros region, the existence of such a phase is doubtful. Instead of Taherabad, it seems that Hoseinabad comesafter the Seh Gabi Phase. It should be noted that Taherabad Phase has not been identified from the excavationsand field surveys. The author suggests here that Godin VII Phase comes right after Seh Gabi Phase in the easternCentral Zagros and the other regions under its influence and the pottery-making tradition of Taherabad Phase (GodinVIII) is probably part of the previous Seh GabiPhase; therefore, it can no longer be considered a separate tradition.Based on what is mentioned, the chronology of the Chalcolithic Period in the eastern Central Zagros is needed tobe reassessed. Such a proposition results from the analyses of the potsherds recovered from the old and new fieldexpeditions.

In this article, by analyzing the research activities conducted in the Central Zagros region in the Iron Age, the shortcomings, contradictions, questions and theories have been expressed, and in addition to presenting the general framework of previous researches, they have been criticized and analyzed. For this purpose, past and current published activities as well as some unpublished reports have been considered. This can be useful in identifying future research priorities. The transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Central Zagros is largely unknown, and in archaeological excavations in this area, due to lack of accurate stratigraphic excavations, terms such as Iron Age I, II and III cannot be used for its different areas. Therefore, in this article, the general term of the Early Iron Age for Iron Age I and II is used.The Central Zagros region has long been interesting to archaeologists. The French geologist Jacques de Morgan visited the Luristan region in the 19th century and identified many sites. Ernst Herzfeld in the early years of the twentieth century surveyed many areas of the Zagros region and identified Tepe Giyan in the county of Nehavand. This site was later excavated by G. Contenau and R. Ghirshman. Stein conducted archaeological research in Luristan and excavated several Iron Age tombs in Hulailan and Badawar. Almost at the same time as Stein, the Holmes expedition was one of the teams that conducted archaeological studies in the Luristan region under Schmidt’s direction. In 1934 and 1935, he conducted archaeological surveys and excavations in Luristan, and in 1938, he excavated Surkh Dum for three weeks; this site is highly important for reasons such as being a settlement land and having hundreds of different objects. Sites such as Kamtarlan, Chigha Sabz and Surkh Dum were excavated during performing this research. A review of the research background conducted in the Central Zagros region indicates that the excavations were scattered and non-purposeful and at first, more attention was paid to objects. In the early studies of the Iron Age, there was no definite plan, and most of the information obtained was based on individual, and in some cases, incidental research. The lack of necessary standards in excavations has made the problem more complex. Some of the excavations were not fully published or were later conducted by others. These problems are observed in some sites such as Tang-i Hamamlan, Surkh Dum, Cheshmeh Mahi, Tepe Giyan, Khatun Ban, Jameh Shuran, Tepe Guran, Chigha Sabz, and Kamtarlan. The Iron Age in the Central Zagros is often based on studies conducted in the 1970s and 1980s. These researches started with scattered studies, and projects related to Luristan bronzes were revived. Attempts to identify bronze makers as well as their stylistics, and their geographical origin were among the reasons for focusing on Iron Age activities in the Central Zagros. Previous scattered studies were mostly based on the stylistics of objects. In the following decades, Luristan bronzes were strongly considered, and the research teams of the Danish in Hulailan, the British team in Delfan (Dilfan), and the Belgian delegation in Pusht-i Kuh (Ilam Province) conducted extensive studies in this field. In the 1970s and 1980s, during the Godin project, valuable surveys and excavations were conducted, based on which a purposeful approach on chronology, settlement patterns, comparison to the Bronze Age, and connections of the Central Zagros to other regions were considered. Nevertheless, problems, such as separation of Iron Age I and II phases from each other, involvement of theories in the north of the Central Plateau in the Central Zagros region, and uncertainty of the period of some pottery traditions like Elamite/Kassite goblets are among its shortcomings. It should also be noted that this study did not cover all parts of the Central Zagros. Clare Goff's research in the 1970s considerably contributed to the understanding of the Iron Age in the Luristan region. The excavations of Louis Vanden Berghe in Pusht-i Kuh led to excavation of 11 Early Iron Age cemeteries, which have been thoroughly investigated in the chronology of objects obtained from this area. The Danish excavation in Tepe Guran had a good sequence, but the speed of the excavation and the lack of phasing have somewhat reduced the quality of the work.The timing of the use of iron metal, either as a decoration or as a public tool in the Central Zagros, has not been precisely determined. Among the findings of Iron Age I, currently there is no conclusive evidence, and the beginning of this phase is based more on pottery changes. In the studies of this area, the emergence of gray Gray Ware as well as Kassite/Elamite pottery and the end of Godin III pottery tradition is regarded as the beginning of the Iron Age. Lack of gray pottery in all areas of the Central Zagros as an indicator, contradiction at the beginning of the Iron Age, existence of different traditions such as the difference between Pish-i Kuh and Pusht-i Kuh, and lack of separation of pottery from settlement sites with cemeteries are among the challenges of this phase. This complexity is intensified in Iron Age II, so that it is not presently possible to distinguish between this phase and the previous phase. Although pottery has been introduced as Iron Age II, firstly, these samples exhibit regional differences and secondly, their start, end or phasing time is unknown. Among the types of gray pottery, no distinction can be made between Iron Age I and II pottery. Based on surveys and excavations of cemeteries in this period, we encounter a decrease in settlement or a change in settlements, and our evidence from this period is more incomplete than that of the previous period. In general, , lack of a chronological framework for its various regions, scattered surveys, lack of standards in excavations, or long delays in the publication of reports, are among the problems in the Central Zagros region. Additionally, inadequate recording, different interpretations, lack of separation of the different phases of the Iron Age, imposing theories on data, paying attention to objects and neglecting details like architecture, and not paying sufficient attention to the findings of northern Mesopotamia are other problems. Furthermore, uncertainty of the beginning of the Iron Age in different parts of the Central Zagros, lack of detailed study of economic, technological and political changes from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, uncertainty of the impact of atmospheric factors on sites, ambiguity of the Central Zagros association with the Ilam civilization and lack of accurate excavation in areas covering all phases of this period are among the other problems. Moreover, insufficient knowledge of Luristan bronzes and unknown details such as manufacturers, production centers, accurate stylistics, and time of their production are other shortcomings of the Iron Age of the Central Zagros region. To start research activities in the Central Zagros region, considering these shortcomings, we need purposeful, long-term, question-based projects using interdisciplinary studies.

The archaeological sites, including the Sarcham, Bardemar and Kenacheh were excavated during the Darian Dam Archaeological Salvage Project (DDASP) in the Hawraman region, west of the Kurdistan province, western Iran. These sites are adjacent to the Sirwan River. Bardemar is an open-air site and Kenacheh is a cave site. Both sites contain the material cultures of the late Islamic period with simple brown potteries. Mica was the temper which used for making the potteries, so their tempers are shiny and reflect easily the light. The potteries of these two sites were hand-made and not well-fired. The Sarcham is a multi-period site and was recognized the records of Parthian/Sassanid period, Iron Age I, late Bronze Age and Chalcolithic period. The historical period potteries are mostly orange and wheel-made. While, the Iron Age I potteries are divided to buff, orange and grey colors. The grey wares are less abundant. These potteries that have temper were mostly hand-made and under-fired. The same characteristic can be seen in those of the Bronze Age. Potteries related to the Chalcolithic period are categorized into two groups of red slipped and the buff wares. The latter ones that are occasionally characterized by black-on-buff decoration are in minority. During this period the straw-temper was mostly used for tempering the potteries, where they were mostly under-fired. Totally 42 potsherds were selected for X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis including 14 samples from Bardeh Mar, 8 samples from Kenacheh and 20 samples from Sarcham. Some factors that could help to better characterize the soils, including variety of sites in which the potteries are found, their uses and the pottery styles, were used to provenance the potteries of this study. In addition to the data of the potteries, data of three soil samples surrounding the excavated sites were generated. The XRD data showed that calcite, quartz, clay minerals, feldspar and iron oxides are the main pottery-forming minerals, while the calcite, quartz and clay minerals are the main soil-forming minerals. The XRD data suggests derivation of few potteries from non-local materials. However, the XRF data from the potteries revealed that all the samples are cogenetic and originated from the soils of the same geological formation. All the excavated sites are located on the same rock types or the alluvium derived from them. The rocks and consequently the derived alluvium (soils) were formed as the result of the same geological process (es). This is the evidence confirming the results obtained by the XRF data. The XRD and XRF data that are compiled with the geological information of the area where the sites are located indicates that all the potteries of different periods have similar characteristics and made by the use of local materials. All the potteries from Chalcolithic period to the late Islamic period, even the ones with lower frequencies, were made using the local soils. The results are also applicable for the Kenacheh cave, where it has been used by the local transhumances. Location of the Hawraman region in a mountainous area, adjacent to the west-central Zagros and Mesopotamia has caused that the way of living of the ancient people of this area be always questionable. Recognition of the soils that had been the origin of the potteries is helpful for characterization of the geographical origin of the potteries.

Among the ancient motifs from Iran and Mesopotamia, some pictures showing special shaped beakers can be seen but unfortunately no explicit comment has been made on the nature and function of these forms by researchers. Recently, 7 pottery beakers have been found in a Mannaean cemetery (Mala Mcha) and and Iron Age grave (Kani Koter) in northwestern Iran and authors are believed that their shape and possible function are compatible with some of these ancient motifs dating back from the third millennium B.C. to the Achaemenid period. A glazed beaker from Tepe Hasanlu which belongs to Iron Age II also has the same characteristics as the Mala Mcha and Kani Koter examples. Considering the symbolic meaning of the Lotus flower in ancient cultures, as well as their form and decoration, it seems that the Mala Mcha, Kani Koter and Hasanlu pottery beakers have a special application. Previously some researchers in some cases have interpreted these motifs as a Barsom (Barsam) or flower (often lotus). The authors propose that these objects that can be seen on ancient reliefs or ivories are simple or painted beakers equivalent to the clay beakers unearthed in these sites. Probably this type of beaker was not used as normal container, but it seems to have been utilized by high-level people during special events and banquets perhaps for drinking prized liquids. In addition, it seems that the samples of the Mala Mcha, Kani Koter and Hasanlu in terms of shape and possible there function, are comparable with some of the patterns of the motifs discussed in this paper. The grave of Kani Koter is rich and belonged to a warrior of high status. Also the graves of Mala Mcha which had pottery beakers were richer than other graves, and it seems that the users of them have superior position over others. The glazed beaker of Hasanlu was as well as obtained from a room with local and Mesopotamian specimens in a special room. In ancient motifs, users of these objects have a superior social position than others. In this paper, in addition to comparing the shape of the beakers of Mala Mcha, Kani Koter and Hasanlu with the remaining ancient motifs, Chromatography experiments were carried out which unfortunately, did not receive any laboratory data on its application.

Tappeh Namashir (E 45° 44’ 4.00” – N 36° 7’ 56.00”, 1336m ASL), is located beneath the village of Namashir at 33 km north west of Baneh city (NW Kurdistan province, western Iran). The excavation of Tappeh Namashir was carried out under the directions of Mr. Zahed Karimi in June and July, 2010. Excavators opened 6 operations (A, B, C, D, E, and F). The aim of excavation in these two operations of A (3×2 m) and B (2×2 m) in the center of this site is studying the stratigraphy of the archaeological deposits. Tappeh Namashir consists of 5 main layers. On the basis of this excavation, its material culture belongs to the Chalcolithic (layers V, IV and III), Iron Age (layer II) and Islamic periods (layer I). This paper introduces the material culture of this stratigraphy. Layer I with late Islamic pottery constitutes the latest occupation on Tepe Namashir represented by brown-red pottery with a highly mineral tempered. Layer II is belonging to the Iron Age; The pottery of this layer represented by bowl with everted short necked and round body, shallow tray, carinated bowl with everted rim with yellowish or reddish slip and polished surface treatment without any decoration. Layer III Namashir is characterized by late chalcolithic chaff-tempered/chaff-faced wares. Most of the pottery production is brown, buff, and gray, chaff-tempered and chaff-faced. Few manipulated wares are seen in this period which their body different from Dalma wares and resemble to other late chalcolithic wares of this layer. The shape repertoire mainly consists of simple everted bowls, open bowl with incurved vessel wall, open bowls, open or shallow bowl with straight vessel walls, jar with wide shoulder and short everted neck, jar with overhanging rims, small pottery, carinated pottery and some of the most distinctive forms of ceramic decoration in the late chalcolithic period are incised chevron and zigzag patterns and deep, regular comb incised horizontal bands. Late chalcolithic potteries of Tepe Namashir is resemble to Northwestern Iran and Northern Mesopotamia and different from other region such as Susiana. Layer IV of Namshir is characterized by black on buff painted wares and few impressed potteries. Black on buff potteries resembles to Seh Gabi, Tappeh Siah bid and Ubaid pottery sherds. The pottery of this layer is often a buff color and the four main pottery groups are distinguished on the basis of shape and size: bowls with open rim, globular simple or painted pots, trays and perforated bowls. Geometric decorations cover the exterior and interior of the pottery in addition to surface-manipulation on the exterior of the pottery, with handled vessels, and finger impression on the surface of pottery. Layer Namashir V is the earliest layers of Tepe Namashir, which cut down into the sedimentary virgin soil and related to the Dalma period. Dalma streaky and Dalma painted wares appear to have originated earlier than the Dalma impressed wares, a situation resembling the internal stratification found at the Dalma Tepe, Godin Tepe and Tepe Namashir. The geometric decoration of pottery consists of rows of triangles, hatch lines, streaky paint, painted solid, cross-hatched, hanged triangles, paralleled bands and circular patterns. Most of these decorations are typical for Dalma tradition wares. The material culture of Tepe Namashir shows that there are similarities in the potteries with those in the northwest, west and western half of the Central Iranian Plateau and northern Mesopotamia. The great amount of obsidian lithic and debris is indicative of the interaction of Tepe Namashir with other region. As per available data in this excavation, the region of northwestern Kurdistan Province has an important role in the interaction between regions of Iran, Mesopotamia and Anatolia in the chalcolithic period. In addition to the pottery, other materials such as architectural materials, lithic tools, clay spindle whorls, stone objects, mortars, stone rings and copper slag were seen.

In the third season excavation of Lama Cemetery (Chal Shahin Lama), a cylindrical seal with inscription was found and because of its significance, it was introduced, compared and analyzed. Existence of this seal indicates the continuation of nomadic practices of the people of this cemetery in spite of change of material culture (for example, ceramic). The seal of Lama and its grave reflect the broad cultural communication with neighboring regions. Moreover, the prolonged use of Lama’s cylindrical seal emphasizes that caution be practiced in chronological studies based on one particular object or index. There is a huge gap in the time between the creation of the inscription and engraving of the animal. It is likely that the inscription of this seal belongs to the late Bronze Age/early Iron Age and the image of the ostrich dates to Iron Age III.

This article is an attempt to introduction and studying if dozen caves that used of them in the period of Dalma (Middle Chalcolithic). The use of caves is one of the sign of the pastoralism (both permanent and temporary), nomadism and especially transhumance pastoralism. In the base of available evidences in this study area could be posed the transhumance pastoralism strategy in the life in this period. The position of the caves and the sever accessibility of them is showed that use of this caves is probably impermanent and limited in the special season and when the nomadic pastoral have taken their flocks to the mountains. One of the property of these caves are their height, sever accessibility and narrow entrance and seems that safety (wild animal of cold temperature at night), accessibility of different pastures have been involved at the use of them. There caves include the Kona Shamsham in the highlands of Marivan county and Samangan and Koolan Gawra in the county of Divandareh in the Kurdistan province in the west of Iran that surveyed in the late archaeological investigations.

In the present paper, Tepe Sarghal’eh and its surface fingings have been studied. This survey coincided with excavation of one of the sites in the region. The site had previously been identified. In this review we have tried to gather complete data. The discovered potsherds show this mound just belongs to late Chalcolithic period and Il-Khanid (Mongol) dynasty. What makes this mound a remarkable one is the existence of first Uruk pottery samples in Kurdistan province. In other words, finding such potsherds in Sarghal’eh Tepe indicates the importance of this site – as it is located on the route to Mesopotamia – and the influence of Mesopotamia on this area, selecting appropriate places as well as the site size. 

This article discusses the settlement patterns of the middle chalcolithic sites in the Talvar river Basin in an area expanding from the river tributaries to its fairly lower bed eastwardly. The river basin is mostly placed within the both counties of Dehgolan and Ghorveh in Kurdestan Province. The archaeological investigations indicated the rise of occupation and presumably even its beginning in the chalcolithic period coinciding with various ways of life sustenance. In terms of size, elevation and access to the environmental resources, the middle chalcolithic sites (34 sites) could be divided in to several different groups. This issue is possibly based on the different ways of life sustenance. The earliest evidence in the region goes back to the middle chalcolithic period, but this result should not be known finally as both natural and cultural post-depositional alternations such as erosion, sedimentation and cultivation could play an important role. This article, however, is based on the yielded data collected as the result of archaeological investigations by provincial ICHO and also the first author who undertook a survey to write his Ph.D dissertation. 

Firstly, some seals from Qazvin, one from Kermanshah and the other from Zanjan will be described and compared with some similar cases in this paper. Then, the probable relations between these seals and historical issues during Iron Age III in Iran as well as trading and historical geography matters are going to be discussed. The compound elements of the local arts in Luristan (Lurestan) and some attributes of the Elamite style of seal making beside their scant differences from Assyrian art let us infer that the mentioned seals are local; however, they (the seals featured in this paper) have been influenced by the Neo-Assyrian style as a result of the substantial trading and political military interrelations between the two places (Iran and Mesopotamia).