فهرست مطالب azam amini

Climate change and its destructive consequences are considered as one of the major global challenges today. Various measures are being taken to tackle this issue. A key issue in this process is the possibility of litigation against harmful actions or inactions by governments or other actors on the global stage. Activists from different areas are working to enhance the capacity of national and international judicial and quasi-judicial bodies to address climate change litigations by strengthening the legal relationship between climate change consequences and human rights. Therefore, this research examines how, from a theoretical perspective, the relation between climate change and human rights is justified, what mechanisms are being utilized for litigation, what characteristics judicial and quasi-judicial proceedings have in the context, how technical barriers to litigation are overcome, and ultimately, how the prospects in this area can be evaluated. These are the main topics of the present research, utilizing library tools and studying various documents, including relevant judicial and quasi-judicial practices, and inferring generalizable conclusions from diverse data. The research findings underscore the high capacity of a human rights-based approach concerning litigation against the perpetrators of climate change and the potential impact of these findings on future climate change litigation.

Procedural Principles Ruling the Utilization of Tigris-Euphrates River Basin. Procedural principles represent a normative framework and play a notable role in regulating water law. In addition, procedural principles could help in preventing the occurrence of disputes. Cooperation, evaluation of environmental impacts and the principle of information and consultation with related countries are the most important procedural principles. These obligations reflect customary rules of law and also are specified in many bilateral, multilateral and international documents. Considering procedural principles together with the practice of Tigris-Euphrates basin countries illustrates that although the neighbouring countries are members of multiple international and bilateral agreements and organs, but in practice the region lacks an effective and sustainable approach in implementing the procedural obligations, which has been leaded to negative impacts on substantial obligations such as no harm and equitable and reasonable utilization.Tigris and Euphrates basin, Procedural Principles, Obligation to Cooperation, Obligation to Evaluate Environmental Impacts, Obligation to Information and Consultation

Macro investing often leads to human rights and environmental challenges. Sustainable investment emphasizes the necessity of foreign investment sustainability and acting within the framework of environmental and social norms. Indeed, Environmental and social assessments are considered a prerequisite for an investment projects’ insurance by foreign-investment insurers, such as OPIC and MIGA. In other words, projects which are not compatible with environmental or social norms are not supported by these institutes. While the projects are being carried out, these institutions monitor them and if any incompatibility with environmental or social norms occurs, the continuance of the insurance coverage will be challenged. Despite these two institutions approach, compatibility of a foreign-investment project with environmental or social norms is not a legal requirement for its insurance. Nonetheless, it can be argued that the insurer must not insure the projects, when there are serious environmental risks or fundamental human rights may be affected as, it would seem that a soft law is forming on the necessity of environmental assessments and not granting insurance coverage to such projects. This paper intends to examine the role of foreign-investment insurers in protecting the environment.

Bladder cancer is the sixth most common cancer in men and the tenth most common cancer in women. The role of viral infections in the development of urinary bladder cancer has been discussed a lot in recent years. The role of Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) as a cocarcinogen has been proven in some human cancers. Therefore, the aim of this research is the molecular investigation of EBV in bladder masses in Bushehr province.

The current research is a descriptive-analytical study. The study population includes bladder tissue biopsies of people diagnosed with bladder cancer referred to Persian Gulf Martyrs Hospital in Bushehr. The paraffin-embedded bladder biopsy tissue of 181 patients with bladder cancer with an average age of 64.52±13.78 as well as 30 non-cancerous bladder tissue samples as the control group were examined for molecular tests after deparaffinization and nucleic acid purification. In order to ensure the absence of PCR inhibitors, human beta globin gene was first detected as an internal control, and then the BKRF1 gene of EBV was detected by nested PCR method. Finally, SPSS software version 26 was used to analyze the data and perform statistical tests.

Out of 181 bladder carcinoma samples, 7 cases (3.9%) were infected with EBV, but no statistically significant relationship was found for age, sex, and stage and grade of tumor with EBV positive samples (P>0.05). In addition, EBV was not detected in any of the non-cancerous control samples; however, the difference in the prevalence of EBV between the bladder cancer patients' group and the control group was not statistically significant (P=0.33). In addition, the sequencing of the nested PCR products of the BKRF1 gene and the phylogenetic analysis indicate the presence of EBV type 1 in the positive samples.

Based on the findings of the present study and despite the fact that the percentage of EBV infection in cancerous samples was higher than in non-cancerous samples, it is unlikely that EBV is an effective factor in causing bladder cancer in Bushehr province, and other risk factors are probably involved in the etiology of bladder tumors in our study population, such as increasing air pollution in this region of the country, high-risk occupations, smoking, and other carcinogenic viral factors.

The outbreak of COVID-19 has been revealed some pathogenic mechanisms which are indicating the role of virus in the pathogenesis of diseases such as diabetes mellitus, autoimmune and cardiovascular diseases. COVID-19 results in deterioration of glycemic control in diabetic patients and even in some cases developed new onset diabetes mellitus which are indicating the possible interfering role of SARS-CoV-2 in different metabolic pathways. Furthermore, during COVID-19 exacerbation of inactivated or de novo autoimmune diseases have been reported which indicate the causative role of virus in the stimulation of immune system and aggravation of autoimmune diseases through different mechanisms. In this report, a 31 year old male case of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) has been introduced who developed flu like illness, generalized edema and renal failure following the administration of third dose of Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 (Sinopharm Beijing institute of Biological Products, China). During hospital course, proper therapeutic response was not achieved despite biopsy proven class IV lupus nephritis and standard therapy with methyl prednisolone and cyclophosphamide. He discharged with administration of routine hemodialysis thrice weekly. According to the course of disease, findings of biopsy and serologic tests, there were some challenging scenarios that are discussed in this report.

State right to exert diplomatic protection of its nationals, who have been harmed in other countries, is an incontestable subject matter, provided that they prove their nationality, exhaustion of local remedies, and commit internationally wrongful acts. However, the possibility of diplomatic protection of those with dual nationality in other subject country and resort to human rights of the protected individual is among issues that have been well-established in international practice. Detention, trial, and condemnation of Mrs. Nazanin Zaghari, an Iranian-British Subject, in Iran and UK diplomatic protection of her, and the probability of UK litigation in ICJ once again raised the question of dominant nationality of protected individual and resort to human rights as a basis for diplomatic protection. In this survey, conducted by a descriptive-analytical method, Britain justifications for diplomatic protection of Mrs. Zaghari on the basis of dominant nationality and human rights have been investigated and it has been criticized based on national regulations of Iran in the context of nationality and the principle of prohibition of abuse of rights and estoppel. Additionally, political negotiations with Britain to solve the dispute or Iran withdrawal from the protocol on compulsory admission of ICJ jurisdiction annexed to Vienna Convention on Consular Relations before filing a lawsuit before ICJ can be considered as possible solutions.

Hamoun international wetlands possess social, economic, cultural, protective, and ecological values. As the common heritage of mankind and according to the rules of international environmental customary law, these wetlands have an undeniable right from the Helmand River Basin water resources. Due to the vital values of Hamun wetlands, this paper aims to interpret the 1973 Helmand Treaty in order to find out what is the Hamoun wetlands water right in the 1973 treaty. Accordingly, the 1973 Helmand Treaty is interpreted based on the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969). Results reveal that the environmental demands of the Hamoun wetlands have not been considered in the subject and context of the treaty. It is necessary to provide the Hamoun wetlands water rights, which has been neglected in Iran and Afghanistan hydropolitical interaction for more than 115 years. Therefore, it must be paid attention to that the riparian states which have a customary commitment to supply the environmental demands shall provide guaranteed environmental water rights for the Hamouns wetlands.

High job stress exposes individuals to job burnout. People who experience constant, high and uncontrolled stress in the workplace are more prone to job burnout. The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of different levels of job burnout and their related factors in the workers of comprehensive health
centers in Bushehr and Borazjan, Iran.

This cross-sectional study was conducted on 203 healthcare workers. Data were collected using the Maslach Burnout Inventory and HSE Management Standards questionnaires in 2019. Data were analyzed in SPSS software, version 24, using descriptive statistics (mean, frequency and percentage), the independent t-test, ANOVA, Chi-square test, Pearson’s correlation test and linear regression.

The mean age of the research units was 36.74±8.40. Ninety-nine percent of the healthcare workers had low and moderate levels of job burnout. There was a strong negative correlation between job burnout and the management standards (r=-0.69, p<0.001). The two components including organizational role and job relationship predicted job burnout and explained 63% of the changes in job burnout.

Most of the healthcare workers had low and moderate job burnout. The two components including organizational role and job relationship were the greatest predictors of job burnout. The lack of familiarity with onechr('39')s role in the system and unfavorable interpersonal relationships in the workplace were the main stressors that affected job burnout and which need special attention from health policymakers.

The original attitude toward men and women in the rules of Holy Quran sometimes reveals a different religious knowledge regarding the past. In Islamic Law, they often believe in the principle of equal rights for men and women, however, about divorce, the well-established theory is that divorce is performed by husband due to differences between man and woman in terms of creation. But the main question is that as for the acceptance of man and woman equality in dissolution of marriage in International Human Rights Law, whether this opinion is compatible with Islamic Law. The present study shows that women have long had the right to divorce, and the grounds of divorce at the request of the wife or under the agreement of the couple is, in fact, recognition of legal or contractual right to divorce for the spouse. when husband is unable to treat his spouse well, it is necessary (for him) to initiate divorce, and wife reciprocally can get divorced, so she can originally ask the court for it. This is an interpretation which is in line with the rules of human rights on eliminating discrimination against women.

This paper aims to investigate students' interpretations of the emergence of religious modernness by referring to the pith of their daily religious life. Religious modernness has also been studied based on Lapland, Kanter and Rambo models. The method used in this research is narrative analysis. Among the students of the University of Tehran, a semi-structured narrative interview was conducted with 31 of them using the theoretical saturation technique. The interviews were finally summarized and analyzed thematically in individual narratives as well as a general narrative. The findings of this study show the occurrence of a complication of change in the religious life of students. Students' narratives of their religious lives contain basic points about the dimensions of religiosity, which show that all of them have been affected by individual and environmental changes and have finally rethought their religiosity. To illustrate this change, the interviews were divided into three time periods: "sustainable religious life", "crisis in religious life" and "religious modernness ", and the most important topics of each stage were extracted. Three fundamental themes were extracted from each of the three stages, including "religiosity as a priori", "crisis of religious identity" and "religiosity as a posteriori". Also, students' understanding and interpretation of religious modernity indicate a clear and decisive understanding. Finally, it should be said that the general narrative of students about their religious modernity indicates a posteriori understanding of religiosity. Among them, modernity is understood and interpreted as a socio-psychological turn that can be analyzed on the historical context of their religious life.

 Diabetes mellitus type 1 is an autoimmune disease in which the B-cells of the pancreas are damaged, leading to insulin deficiency and finally hyperglycemia. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of resveratrol consumption on cellular metabolic pathways in type 1 diabetic patients using proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. 

 Thirteen individuals with type 1 diabetes participated in this clinical trial designed as before and after exploratory investigation. All the participants received 500mg capsules of resveratrol twice daily for 60 days. Blood collection was done before resveratrol supplementation, after 30 days, and at the end of 60 days. The data were obtained at three different timings, compared with applying the HNMR spectroscopy. Spectra were processed, and PLS-DA analysis methods were applied to data. Outliers were taken, and the HMDB metabolites databank specified the metabolites and its pathways. 

The main variations identified in this investigation were as follows: short and long-chain fatty acid metabolism, the metabolic pathway of triacylglycerol, 1-propanol, and ethanoic acid, leading to an increase in butyraldehyde and 1-butanol metabolites.

 The results of this research showed a reduction in palmitic acid biosynthesis. This finding suggests that resveratrol may cause significant changes in adipocyte metabolism by inducing adipogenesis and apoptosis in the adipocyte. It may also play a role in improving the production of insulin, leading to low blood glucose levels.

one on of the most important duties of the people in Islamic societies is helping needies and indigents. Every one had to compensate the existing shortages of the others depending on her hisown possibilities.

This research is of theoretical type and the research method is descriptive-analytical and the method of data collection is library and has been done by referring to documents, books and articles.

Ethical Considerations:

 In order to organize this research, while observing the authenticity of the texts, honesty and fidelity have been observed.

Shia important jurisprudences and some of the Sonnet tribes had accepted this and they have said: Adult women can decide to do everything with her own properties, either she has husband or not.

Women, like men, can run her own properties which had acquired by economic working, inheritance, dower and alimony, women can decide what to do with their own properties such as buying and selling, leasing, mortgaging, farm letting, donation, bailment and loaning and they do not need to let anyone even their husband.

The US military operation to assassinate General Soleimani, contrary to its claim, does not comply with the elements and conditions of self-defense and is an internationally wrongful act. The subject of this article is assessing the possibility of prosecution of criminal responsibility and civil responsibility arising from this wrongful act before the International Criminal Court and the International Court of Justice. Despite Iran and US are not parties to the Statute of International Criminal Court, Iran could create the possibility of exercising jurisdiction by the court over the case through inviting Iraq to accept the ad hoc jurisdiction of the court. But, even in these circumstances, the assassination of General Soleimani cannot be pursued within the framework of one of the four crimes under the jurisdictional of the Court. It is possible to pursue US civil responsibility for this wrongful act by resorting to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons 1973 (1973) to which the Iran and US are the parties. This Convention, which prohibits the commission of certain crimes, including murder, against internationally protected persons, has provided a dispute settlement mechanism that will eventually lead to the International Court of Justice.

This study deals with students’ lived experiences of the emergence of modernism in their religiosity by conducting an inquiry into their religious life and observing the dynamic quality of their religiosity. The method of this research is analysis of narrations. Of University of Tehran students, 26 students were chosen for a validity and semi-structured interview in accordance with the theoretical saturation technique. The interviews were condensed into individual narratives as well as a general narrative and were thematically analyzed. The findings of the research indicated the emergence of a change in the students’ religious life. The students’ narrations of their religious life indicated that they have been influenced by personal and environmental changes and, in consequence, they reconsidered their religiosity. To illustrate this change, the interviews were divided into three periods—“sustainable religious life”, “crisis in religious life”, and “religious modernism”. Three fundamental themes were derived, which includes “religiosity as a priori”, “crisis of religious identity”, and “religiosity as a posteriori”. In the end, it can be said that the students’ overall narration of their religious modernism indicated a posteriori understanding of religiosity. Religious modernity is neither a fully conscious action here nor a fully structured phenomenon.

Sanctions imposed by the US against Iran have had disastrous implications for the Iranian population and this requires the responsibility of those who imposed such sanctions. ICC as the only permanent court, which investigates the criminal responsibility of individuals, would be the most appropriate international forum for prosecuting American authorities imposing sanctions against Iran. According to jurisdictional limitations for Iran and the US as states not parties to the ICC Statute, the only way for Iran to resort to the Court is to accept jurisdiction of the Court concerning the crime in question under article 12(3) of Rome Statute through a declaration. Although sanctions are not considered by themselves as crime, implications of which could be categorized under the category of crimes against humanity including extermination, persecution, and other inhumane acts of a similar character. Notwithstanding, Iran may be prevented from the possibility of the exercise of the jurisdiction by the court against Iranian officials by excluding the court jurisdiction in its declaration to investigating the situation in question i.e. sanctions.

On January 8, 2020, Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752, which was flying from Tehran to Ukraine, was hit by a missile shortly after takeoff and killed all its passengers. The General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran has issued a statement declaring that the firing on the aircraft was because of the human error and a mistake by the Iranian Air Defense in determining the nature of the aircraft. This article, which uses a descriptive-analytical method in conducting research, addresses the main question of who is responsible for civil and criminal responsibility for this incident, and how is it possible to repair the damages caused by this incident? The air defense action, which can be attributed to Iran, violates Iran's international obligations, including the obligations under the International Civil Aviation Convention (1944), and raises the international responsibility of Iran. following the mechanism provided for in the International Convention on Civil Aviation. However, Iran could pursue its good actions in accepting firefighting and expressing its regret, with measures such as effective prosecution of those involved and negotiating with the victims' State of nationality and compensation and satisfaction of its families and Prevent more severe consequences by resort to the International Court of Justice or the International Criminal Court or national courts.

Many prevalent disorders were observed in and around the knee joint. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was a modern and costly diagnostic technology that was progressively applied worldwide. This study was conducted in the Bushehr educational hospitals in 2018 with the purpose of determining the necessity of knee MRI prescriptions.

This paper was a kind of cross-sectional descriptive-analytical study. The statistical population of the study was all patients who were prescribed knee MRI due to the appearance of knee problems and referred to the MRI Center of Bushehr University of Medical Sciences in 2018. The sampling method was convenient sampling. The sample in this study included 274 patients. The indications and data collection form of Vojdani et al.'s study were used to specify the necessity of the mentioned prescriptions. In this study, SPSS 22 software was applied to analyze data. Also, the Chi-Square test was used to for analyzing the data.

Among the total studied population in this study, MRI prescription was evaluated inappropriately for approximately 24 % of patients. In this study, the appropriateness of the prescriptions had a significant relationship with age, job, education level, physician prescribing, and requesting MRI (P-value < 0.05).

It could be deduced that about a quarter of MRI was not appropriate to clinical prescription. Regarding the high cost of hospital and the necessity of their reduction, induced demand would be prevented by using valid indications. Therefore, reducing unnecessary prescriptions yielded to fewer costs of the health system and patients.

According to the noble verse: “And women have rights similar to their obligations, according to what is fair”, the wife has some rights similar to the duties that she has toward her husband. According to the traditional and rational reasons, the jurisprudents brought up different opinions about details of these rights and duties. This paper has collected and criticized their opinions in the scope of duties of wife toward her husband in five points of view under the headings of “obligatory absolute obedience”, “obligatory obedience just in cases narrated in the hadiths”, “obligatory obedience in the cases of enjoyments and leaving home”, “obligatory obedience in enjoyment”, and “determining the limits of obedience based on the criterion of incompatibility with the rights of the couples”. Next, considering the opinions presented and criticized and by referring to the evidences that have been neglected, it has explained the viewpoint of “obedience based on known criterion”. This research has used a descriptive-analytical method of study and a documentary style.

After the U.S withdrawal from Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPA) and re-imposition of sanctions, Iran filed its application in ICJ with regard to claims for damages arising from violation of Treaty of Amity and re-imposition of sanctions, and indications of provisional measures. By indicating such measures, ICJ orders the U.S to lift sanctions against Iran and meanwhile the U.S declared its withdrawal from Treaty of Amity. In this paper, we examined the legal effects of the U.S withdrawal from Treaty of Amity and its impact on proceedings in ICJ using a descriptive-analytical method. Research findings show that Iran and its individual subjects could request the U.S to be bound by obligations associated with Treaty of Amity by the time it is in force and termination of the Treaty does not preclude claims for damages from violation of its obligations. Additionally, Iran has the right to require performance of duties arising from provisional measures and claim for compensation due to violating it in ICJ.

Studies and analyses carried out about the 2015 Iran nuclear deal, officially known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), have not properly and accurately addressed the impact of the agreement on Iran's strategic status. This article seeks to study and analyze the impact of the JCPOA on Iran's strategic status in the international system through defining an exact and measurable framework. The authors have studied and measured the impact of the JCPOA on Iran's strategic status with the help of documents and resources available in libraries or on the Internet and by using SWOT analysis to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. The results and findings confirm the research assumption that the JCPOA has elevated Iran's strategic status in the international system.

Shared water resources can be a source of both cooperation and conflict among riparian countries  (Mianabadi, Sheikhmohammady, Mostert, & Van de Giesen, 2014). Water, along with oil, plays a major geopolitical role in the security and political life of the West Asia region, and has had a serious impact on the political and security relations among the countries of the region. Among 286 transboundary river basins, the Euphrates and Tigris River Basins (ETRB), as one of the most challenging transboundary river basin in the world and the largest transboundary basin area in the West Asia, have diverse historical, political, security, economic, social, and geopolitical complexity with water. Building national security is a dominant phenomenon in the West Asia that has been under a dynamic interaction with water issues due to multiple controversies and relations of riparian countries of international rivers in this region. Accordingly, management and utilization of transboundary river absins, especially in this region, is more sensitive and complex than national and local basins (Mianabadi, Mostert, & Van de Giesen, 2015). After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in the beginning of 20th century, three new countries including Turkey, Syria, and Iraq formed which were riparian states neighboring the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. With the collapse of this Empire, hydro-political activities of riparian countries for even more but limited domination over shared water resources in this basin have resulted in different political and security challenges in this critical area. Large scaled irrigation and hydropower projects that started in 1960s by riparian states of the ETRB, regarded as a threat to national security of the other neighboring countries and these countries made efforts to stop such attempts through various measures. For example, the tension between Iraq and Syria in 1975 over construction and operation of Tabqa dam in Syria and reduction in flow of the Euphrates River went on to the brink of a full-fledged war, as such that Iraq threatened Syria by bombing Tabqa dam. This conflict was the reason for these two to deploy their forces in boundaries of the other state, but ultimately, it ended through mediation of Saudi Arabia and USSR (Korkutan, 2001; Sadeghi, 1997). Some research reveal that at least 40% of the Euphrates flow to downstrearm riparians has been lost due to over-exploitation since 1972 and the overall flow of the river is expected to reduce further and faster in the coming decade, exacerbated by climate change (Shamout & Lahn, 2015).

The purpose of this study is to investigate hydro-political status of ETRB and to examine measures of riparian states to dominate the shared water resources of the region, especially the Southeast Anatolia Project (GAP) by Turkey. Therefore, at first, we will introduce climate, geographical, and hydrological status of the region through an analytical-descriptive approach and by studying books and articles and collecting various data from valid scientific websites as well as analyzing different documents and information provided by international organizations including UNDP and UNEP. Then we will scrutinize Euphrates and Tigris river basin water utilization projects of Syria, Iraq, and Turkey, particularly GAP project. In addition, we briefly deliberate possible impacts of climate change on the region in a overview.

The ETRB is a shared basin among seven countries consisting of Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Jordan. In most studies about the ETRB, three countries including Turkey, Iraq, and Syria- were investigated and Iran and Saudi Arabia are less examined and it has been confined to only taking them into account as being geographically present in this basin. Table 1. The Euphrates and Tigris River Basin (N. A. Al-Ansari, 2013; N. Al-Ansari & Knutsson, 2011; ESCWA & BGR, 2013) Country Tigris River Euphrates River   Catchment Area (km2) Total Catchment Area (%) Catchment Area (km2) Total Catchment Area (%) Turkey 54145 24.5 125000 28.2 Syria 884 0.4 76000 17.1 Iraq 123981 56.1 177000 39.9 Iran 41990 19 - - Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Jordan - - 66000 14.9 Total 221000 100 444000 100   Table 2. Potential of Flow Generation and Length of the River in the ETRB Country Tigris River   Euphrates River   Length of the river (Kliot, 1994) Water potential of the river and total catchment area (%) (Ibrahim & Sonmez, 2002; Kucukmehmetoglu, 2009; Lupu, 2002; TMFA (Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs), 1996) Length of the river (Kliot, 1994) Water potential of the river and total catchment area (%) (Kaya, 1998; Kucukmehmetoglu, 2009; Lupu, 2002; Zawahri, 2006) Turkey 400 km (32 %) 25240 (52 %) 1230 km (41 %) 31580 (89 %) Syria 32 km (1%) 0 710 km (23 %) 4000 (11 %) Iraq 1418 (77 %) 23430 (48 %) 1060 (36 %) 0 Total 1850 km (100 %) 48670 (100 %) 3000 (100 %) 35580 (100 %) The contribution of Iran and Iraq is respectively 10% and 38%  (Kaya, 1998). Summary of development projects in the ETRB Table 3 indicates the capacity of constructed and under construction infrastructures of riparian states including -Turkey, Iraq, and Syria in the Euphrates and Tigris basin. Table 3. Capacity of constructed and under construction infrastructures of the riparian states in the ETRB River Turkey Syria Iraq Total % of total flow of basin Storage Capacity (BCM) % of total Catchment Storage Capacity % of total Catchment Storage Capacity (BCM) % of total Catchment   The Tigris River Basin 17.6 35 % 1.5 3 % 130 260 % 149 Thrice The Euphrates River Basin 98 325 % 17.7 59 % 37.6 125 % 153 Quintuple Total 115.6 145 % 19.2 25 % 167.6 210 % 302 Three eighths As shown in this table, the capacity of constructed and under construction infrastructures of the riparian states on the Euphrates River basin contain more than three times of total annual runoff of the basin while this rate for the Tigris River is about five times. Despite this fact that about 89% of the Euphrates originates from Turkey, according to table 2, the country is able to store more than triple the annual average flow of the Euphrates basin. Furthermore, the storage capacity of Turkey’s structures and dams on the Tigris is 17.6 BCM that exceeds the natural annual average flow volume of the the Tigris at Cizre near borders of Turkey and Syria (approximately 16.8 BCM). It shows that Turkey is able to store the total water flowing in its territory in this basin. In addition, the total capacity of the dams and structures constructed in Turkey on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is more than 1.5 times the total, which is more than twice as large for Iraq. Moreover, total capacity of constructed structures and dams of Turkey on Euphrates and Tigris is more than 1.5 times as high as the total natural flow of the basin, these numbers, however, is more than two times for Iraq. Table 6 also indicates that capacity of the constructed structures on the Tigris and Euphrates is more than 300 BCM, which is four times higher than the total available water resources in the basin. Among these, Turkey, Syria, and Iraq have allocated more than 40 percent, more than 6 percent, and near 54 percent of this capacity, respectively.

Results of this study indicate that there is a serious complexity between environmental issues and political and security problems in the region. Studies show that by mere focusing on a country and only concentrating on the GAP project including the Illisu dam on the Tigris, we cannot understand and analyze the complexity of hydro-political issues and challenges in this basin. In addition, the influential impacts of climate change include warming temperatures, decreases in precipitation, increases in the frequency or intensity of some extreme weather events, and runoff as well as the hydroelectric power generation decline, along with distrust and serious competition of the riparian states have led to serious concerns about the future of the basin.This can militarize and securitize water and environmental impacts of constructed hydro-structures rather than being a technical-political issue. Generally, some main overarching challenges concern riparians in this basin including climate change, the weak institutional capacity of the riparian states to cooperate over shared utilization of benefits of the basin, and last but not the least, historical background and mistrust among riparian countries. They could turn water and environmental impacts caused by construction of hydro-structures from the technical-political phase to the military-security once. To tackle these challenges, a comprehensive hydro-political approach that simultaneously considers legal, political, economic, technical and security aspects is essential to managing conflict in this basin. For this purpose, comprehensive studies along with holistic approach in the legal, political, economic, security and environmental fields are necessary.

Distinguishing between legal form and structure of the Paris Agreement, in general, and specific content of its provisions and individual elements is of great improtance.This agreement is a treaty within the meaning of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, although not all provisions in it produce legally binding obligation. Paris Agreement has included a compound of legally and non-legally binding provisions while having a twofold structure (button-up and top-down).This agreement contains a mix of hard, soft, and non-obligations, the boundaries between which are blurred, but each of which plays a distinct and valuable role. This article has discussed legal form, scope and button-up, top-down structure of Paris Agreement using a dogmatic-descriptive approach, identifies legal character of provisions in the Paris Agreement, and then proceeds to tabulate the core provisions of the Paris Agreement across a spectrum from those that conform most closely to hard obligations to those that are best characterized as ‘non-obligations.

Paris Agreement has developed a Supervisory System that is necessary for ensuring effective implementation of its provisions and also assessing collective progress towards its long-term goals. This system acts in the framework of communication, transparency, cooperation,and contribution as the top-down component of the binary structure of the agreement. This supervisory system operates in two approaches: 1) receiving information through Monitoring, Reporting, Verification (MRV) and 2) developing a mechanism for promoting compliance and facilitating implementation. In the first approach, all obligations taken by States on a differentiated basis and according to their different capabilities will be transparent and their collective progress will be assessed in global stocktake and in the second approach, the mechanism will examine non-compliance to legally binding obligations and non-implementation of non-binding obligations by parties to the agreement. The present study will analyze the existing legal provisions on compliance and implementation in the Paris Agreement based on dogmatic method. Considering the type of obligations in the Paris Agreement, the results prove future actions in compliance mechanism not being adversarial and punitive and indicate that joining the Paris Agreement would not result in imposing new sanctions against Iran.

Paris Agreement was approved as a strategic document aimed at directing environmental policy in the world in 2015. It has been designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and in order to achieve such goal, adopting a bottom-up structure, it provided for the parties to determine the extent and scope of their obligations to mitigate these gases considering their capabilities. Under Paris Agreement, parties have a binding obligation of conduct to communicate NDC’s. Countries are facing with difficulties when preparing their NDC’s and other countries experiment will be significantly helpful for Iran in this area. This paper, in addition to studying two significant principles in states’ obligation in their NDCs, can pave the way for policy-makers to let them know to recognize the type of Iran’s obligations in its NDC and how such contributions are prepared. This study shows that Paris Agreement, although, did not develop any guidelines for preparing NDC’s, it established a new framework resulting in increased transparency and indicating individual and collective progress of states in mitigation.

The Paris Agreement is the result of multilateral diplomacy and long-term process of negotiation started in 2007 and released with the approval of the treaty in accordance with international law in Paris by 2015. Reducing the temperature below 2°C and convincing developing countries to accept emission reduction commitments was a major challenge to climate change. A fundamental revision on climate change regime happened in the Paris agreement and it moved from hard distinction approach on emission reduction commitments in the Kyoto Protocol towards a more global and comprehensive approach.
By a descriptive and analytical way as well as the study of papers and documents, the first section presents the process of formation of the Paris agreement and its framework and the principles governing it. The second section examines the main results that arise in the negotiating space and analyzes its achievements.
Discussion Framework:The Paris Agreement is the result of a compromise between, on the one hand, the Europe and several developing countries looking for a legally binding treaty, and on the other hand, the U.S. who was insistent to achieve an outcome that did not require the approval of the Senate, as well as China and India, who insisted no new commitments should be imposed on developing countries.
The “intended nationally determined contributions” (INDC) was introduced at COP19 held in Warsaw in November 2013. INDC and the use of the term "measures" instead of "commitment" had significant role in leading to the 2015 Paris Agreement.
The EU’s strict stance in support of 1.5°C temperature and separation the poorer developing countries from the large emerging economy countries motivated by negotiation tactics, resulted in changes in positions and reaching a consensus on below 2°C.
There are different types of commitments in this agreement and the scope of members’ obligations depend on their interpretation of terms in each article. INDCs are different with respect to the internal situation for each country. The agreement structure is continuous and long-term and nations shall gather every five years and represent their collective progress and reduction plans. They should update these measures, and the members have no right to reverse their previous actions.
It should be stressed on financial mechanism that in spite of reaching consensus on $100 billion annual aid from 2020 for developing nations to address climate change issues, in which was recognized in the Copenhagen Agreement (COP15), the text of the Paris agreement has not mentioned any assistance and what has finally been approved does not require any assistance. In this agreement, the concept of damage was identified and strengthened in the agreements, but with the efforts of the United States and other developed countries, it was forbidden to bring liability proceedings to compensate for it.
The Paris Agreement is the result of twenty-five years of global negotiations on combating climate change. Even though it establishes common commitments for all nations, it is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibility. In this agreement, although members are obliged to fulfill their commitments, these commitments are determined by varying domestic and internal circumstances. Although the purpose of this agreement is to minimize greenhouse gas emissions, it will take longer time for developing countries.
The Paris Agreement is the result of 25 years of UN negotiations in the fight against climate change. Even though it establishes common commitments for all nations, it is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibility. In this agreement, however, nations are obliged to fulfill their commitments, but these commitments are determined in internal scale and with respect to different internal situations. Although the purpose of this agreement is to minimize greenhouse gas emissions, it takes longer time for developing countries.