فهرست مطالب heydari gh

Smoking causes 5.2 million deaths annually in the world of which 70% occur in developing countries. Hookah smoking is increasing around the world especially in the Eastern Mediterranean Region including Iran. This study was carried out to evaluate the pattern of tobacco smoking in both forms of cigarette and hookah smoking. A cross- sectional study was conducted among a random population in the main squares of Tehran in 2006. The sample size consisted of 2053 people in the age range of 10 to 80 years. Non-Probability Sampling method was used. Questionnaires designed and adapted according to WHO and IUATLD questionnaires given to these people. Forty-six percent of the sample had experienced hookah smoking. The prevalence of occasional hookah smoking in the previous year was 45%, while 10% of the participants used hookah at least once a week, 17.9% at least once a month and 17.1% at least once a year;47.2% of participants had experienced cigarette smoking. Prevalence of daily cigarette smoking was 22.7%; 22.7% of current smokers and 25.01% of non-smokers consumed hookah at least once a week. Prevalence of hookah smoking is very similar among cigarette smokers and non-smokers. In this study the prevalence of cigarette smokers was more than national data and the rate of cigarette and hookah smoking among women was higher than that of other studies in this realm. These issues need to be further investigated and more serious studies are required in this regard.

Cigarette smoking is the first preventable cause of morbidity and mortality in the world and can result in various diseases, disability and death. International studies have reported that about half of the smoking-related deaths occur in the middle ages. We decided to assess the age of death among smokers and non-smokers in this study. This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted at Tehran Behesht-e-Zahra Cemetery between September 2005 and March 2006. To estimate the sample size, a pilot study was performed on 112 deaths in March 2005 and based on the results; the sample size was estimated to be 2500. Five days of each month were selected randomly. On these days a physician (co-author) visited the Cemetery office and collected the data with the help of office operator. Information was obtained from first-degree relatives of the deceased after obtaining consent. The under-study variables were age at the time of death and cigarette use. Data were analyzed by SPSS software version 11 and using ANOVA test. A total of 7858 cases were studied out of which 57.3% were males. There were 63.1% (4960) non-smokers, 25.1% (1971) smokers and 11.8% (927) ex-smokers. The mean age of death among total under-study population was 56.8 yrs (55.1 yrs in males and 57.6 yrs in females). The mean age of death was 57.9 yrs among non-smokers, 50.1 yrs among smokers and 56.8 yrs among ex-smokers (p=0.00). Results showed that age of death was lower among smokers but we could not determine a direct correlation between cigarette smoking and death in these

Smoking is the first cause of preventable morbidity and mortality in the world. This study aimed to compare different methods in reducing the students’ tendency towards smoking. This semi-experimental study comprised all 7th grade students studying in middle schools throughout Iran in the year 2005-2006. Students were divided into 4 groups: three study groups (social skills training, increasing knowledge and poster presentation) and 1 control group. Sampling method used was multi-phase cluster.The country was geographically divided into 5 districts (north, south, east, west and central) and the provinces were selected randomly. A questionnaire was used to collect the data. These questionnaires were designed to evaluate the attitude and knowledge of students with regard to smoking and complications. A total of 2911 students with the mean age of 13 years were studied out of which 7.4% were smokers. There were significant differences between the study groups and the control group regarding the attitude and knowledge about the hazards of smoking and abuse of illicit substances. In other words, among the study groups, social skills training, building knowledge and poster presentation had the best results, respectively. In evaluating the preventive methods, social skills training group had the most negative attitude and the highest level of knowledge concerning the disadvantages and hazards of smoking and use of illegal substances. The greatest decrease in smoking was also observed in this group. Social skills training can be an effective preventive measure to control smoking by emphasizing self-respect, problem-solving skills and self restraint.

The medical community has a special role both in preventing and controlling smoking. According to research studies conducted in many countries, many medical staff members are smoker themselves and there is a significant correlation between the rate of smoking in physicians and smoking in the society.Considering the fact that we did not have such information in regard in our society, this study was conducted nationwide to evaluate smoking and its related diseases among members of the Iranian Medical Council. A cross sectional, descriptive study was done by sending questionnaires in accordance with standard criteria from World Health Organization (WHO) and International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (IUATLD).The population under study were all Medical Council members, 80000 people in number. This study was conducted in 2003 by sending the questionnaires via the Journal of the Iranian Medical Council to all members. The answers were sent back by prepaid envelopes via express mail. Data obtained from 3270 returned questionnaires indicated that 13.1% of the population under study were smokers. This number did not show any significant difference compared to the rate of smoking in the society (12.5% in the year 2000). However, smoking in 19.6% of the male physicians and 5.5% of female physicians showed a significant difference as compared with the rate of smoking in males and females in the society (25.2% in males and 2.5% in females in the year 2000).Also, 16.6% of general physicians, 12.5% of pharmacists, 12.5% of dentists, 10.6% of specialists, 18.2% of nurses, 1.4% of midwives, and 4.7% of other medical personnel were smokers.The most common age at which smoking was started was 18 yrs in 31%. It must be mentioned that 10.5%of people had started smoking before the age of 15.In 39.6%, they were suffering from various related diseases. This rate was 37.2%, 46.4% and 45% in non-smokers, ex-smokers and smokers respectively (p=0.00). In smokers, the rate of smoking-related diseases increases with an increase in the number of cigarettes smoked daily; as 28.2% of the people who smoke less than 10 cigarettes per day are sick. This rate is 44.6% in persons who smoke more than 20 cigarettes a day (p=0.00).The obtained results are useful in smoking control training programs for the medical community and health priorities nationwide. (Tanaffos 2005; 4(16): 63-67)

Cigarette smoking is the first preventable death in the world. The number of cigarettes smoked per day and the years of smoking are considered as the main risk factors in causing the related disease, mortality, and morbidity.Since it seems that the age at which smoking is started has decreased in our society, it is important to recognize the cause and factors that affect the tendency towards cigarette smoking in this period of life. This research was conducted according to WHO questionnaire and Global Youth Tobacco Survey project (GYTS). A total of 1119 high school students were chosen randomly from different educational districts of Tehran from the year 2002 to 2003 and questioned in this regard. 28.2% of students (25.2% female and 30.8% male) smoked occasionally and 4.4% of them (1.5% female and 6.06% male) smoked daily. 67.7% of smoker students started smoking before the age of 15 and 88.7% of them before the age of 17. The most important reason for smoking among 55.3% of students was curiosity and leisurely smoking was observed in 19.3%. Also, presence of a smoker in the family is one of the effective factors that affects the initiation of smoking in students; this was statistically significant (p= 0.000). According to the results of this research, students must be properly trained by appropriate methods in this regard in order to prevent the initiation of smoking in school-aged children.

Cigarette smoking is considered as the commonest preventable cause of morbidity and mortality. The present study shows that over a 2- year period, a total of 743smokers have been registered in monthly therapeutic and training courses of Smoking Cessation Clinic. They have received audio-visual training and behavioral therapy. For Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT), nicotine dependence of the patients was assessed by Fagrostrom Tolerance Test in the beginning of each course. The test scores of 170 people (31.2%) were less than 7 (low nicotine dependence), and 376 individuals (68.8%) had scores of 7 or more (high nicotine dependence). At the end of the course, 90% from the first group and 87.5% from the second group had successfully quitted smoking. In the above-mentioned groups, 23.5% from the first group and 48.9% from the second one received not only behavioral therapy but also NRT. However, it is noteworthy that all the smokers with respect to the training provided during the course were prescribed NRT while its usage was up to the patient. This means that half of the second group (51.1%) had succeeded to quit smoking only by means of education and behavioral therapy without any NRT. The role of this kind of training in implementing smoking cessation program is essential. (Tanaffos 2003; 2(6): 39-44)

This study describes the status of 548 smokers who participated in the monthly quitting course of the first “Smoking Cessation Clinic” in Iran between the years 1998 through 2000. All the target population completed the educational courses, which consisted of 7 sessions of 90 minutes in the groups of 6-15. Cigarette intake per/day among the smokers was: in 92 cases (16.9%) less than 10 cigarettes, in 262(48.1%) between 11-20 cigarettes, and in the remaining 191(35%) more than 20 cigarettes. The percentages of cessation in these three groups were 95.7%, 89.3%, and 83.8% respectively. This shows that the quitting rates among those who smoke less are significantly high (X2 for trend: p=0.003).Among them, 193(35.2%) attended all the visits regularly, 177(32.3%) were absent for one session and 178(32.5%) for 2-3 sessions. The quitting percentage in these groups were 94.8%, 93.8%, and 75.8% respectively, the relationship remains significantly associated with the lower absence rate (p=0.0001).There was no significant difference between the percentage of men and women who failed to complete the educational monthly course for any reasons (p=0.72). Besides, no significant difference was observed between both genders who had succeeded to quit (p=0.12). The results confirm that the cessation rate in those who have smoked less cigarettes and attended the clinic courses more regularly were significantly more successful than the others. (Tanaffos 2002; 1(4): 61-67)