فهرست مطالب mahmood modabberi

The Persian poetry has ever been experiencing innovations as an actual element for distinguishing some poets from others, or a period’s poetry from the previous ones. This, in its turn, eventually leads to the emergence of different styles in poetry.Using innovations such as compound neologisms, the stylist poets of all ages have given some uniqueness to their language.Shafi’i-Kadkani is a rare eloquent poet in our time because of his close acquaintance with Persian’s classic language and literature, as well as his wide knowledge of contemporary poetry and literature. His simultaneous knowledge of classic andcontemporary literature is of a salient representation in his poetry. One among the linguistic characteristics of Shafi’i-Kadkani’s poetry is his intelligent use of compound words. Some of those words are coined by the poet himself, while the usage of some others could more or less be traced back to the classic or contemporary periods of Persian poetry. This paper lays stress on the derivational and compound neologisms that, according to his language of poetry, the poet has coined and used. Regarding the significance of word-formation in poetry, it seems an essential requirement to investigate this feature in the poems of prominent Persian poets.Shafi’i-Kadkani is a select poet of contemporary poetry whose verses fairly fit such an investigation. Compounding-processes in the nominal and adjectival categories, as well as their positive effects on the improvement of this poet’s verses, come within the scope of the present study. The poetic achievement of the poet throughout half a century, includes 17 poem-books compiled by the poet in three collections as follows:The first collection, entitled “A Mirror for Voices”, consists of seven poem-books, composed between 1337-1355, including ‘The murmur of voices’, ‘Night singing’, ‘Out of the leaf’s mouth’, ‘In Nishapur’s allées’, ‘Like a tree in the night rain’, ‘about being and singing’, and ‘The fragrance of the river Mulian’;The second collection, entitled “The mountain deer’s second millennium”, covers five poem-books named ‘The cypress of Kashmar’s elegies’, ‘A letter of desolation’, ‘The sonnet for sunflower’, ‘for the pigeons’ admiration’, and ‘The comet’;The third collection, entitled “An infant called happiness”, includes five poem-books named ‘below this welkin, and above this earth’, ‘The acme of thriving and composing’, ‘From everlasting to eternal’, ‘The petunias’ trumpet’, and ‘in a cold night with no song’.

This research follows a descriptive-analytic method, and uses a library-based and note-taking research method to collect the data and elicit the necessary content. In this regard, besides the 17 poem-books of Shafi’i-Kadkani, more than 20 valid resources in Persian grammar and linguistics have been surveyed.

To compose a poem, all poets employ some specific techniques and modes, one of which is the process of coining or inventing words and combinations, called lexical deviation by the formalists. This process is clearly and widely applied in Shafi’i-Kadkani’s poetic language. To survive and maintain its freshness and attraction, language needs neologisms. Word-formation process is divided into compounding and derivation. In compounding process, two different lexical items are combined to generate a new lexical item. This study investigates the process of compounding (combining lexical items) as well as the process of affixation (adding prefixes and/or suffixes to lexical items) under the general term of compounding since those processes are jointly utilized to convey new meanings and to invent new words with new meanings, too.More precisely, this paper focuses on studying compound/derived nouns and adjectives either narrowly used by other poets or coined by the intended poet with no record in previous works. It looks as if, while composing his poems, the poet has had in his mind an image of the complex word with no previous use, and having the knowledge of language capacity and potential, he has invented those words.Compound and derivative neologisms in Shafi’i-Kadkani’s poems could be divided into different types from a grammatical, linguistic or rhetorical point of view. This paper firstly divides those words into two major categories of Noun and Adjective, and then, based on the word-formation processes involved, investigates them in three different types of compounds, derivatives and compound-derivatives.Some processes to form compound nouns and adjectives used in Shafi’i-Kadkani’s poems are as follows:Inverted genitive compounds, combining two nouns: vine-leaf (تاک برگ), mourning-dress (سوک جامه), walnut-tree (گردوبن).Genitive compounds, combining two nouns without the genitive/ezāfe marker -e: pomegranate garden (باغ انار), sand-wind (ریگ باد).Compound nouns, combining two nouns (with a relation of simile) making a new nominal concept: fire-bush (آتش بوته), blood-leaf (خون برگ).Inverted adjectival compounds, combining an adjective and a noun with a total nominal concept: leaf-clothes (برگینه جامه), thirsty-year (تشنه سال), ominus weep (شوم شیون).Derivative nouns, derived from adding the suffix “-ā” to an adjective: quiet+ā (خامشا), wide+ā (فراخا), soft+ā (نرما) (softness).Derivative nouns, derived from adding the diminutive suffix “-ak” tonoun: rain+ak (بارانک), stream+ak (جویک).Derivative nouns, derived from adding the suffix “-vār/-vāre” (-like) to a simple noun: body-like (تنوار), wave-like (موجواره).Compound-derivative nouns, derived from adding a suffix to a noun-present stem combination: curtain-pulling (پرده پردازی).Compound adjectives, combining a noun and an adjective (in the form of inverted adjectival compounds): fettered-feet (بسته پا), a remote past year (دیرسال).Compound adjectives, combining an adjective (in adverbial function) and a noun: heavy-raining (تندبار), gentle-shining (نرمتاب).Compound adjectives, combining two nouns: mirror-ritual (آیینه آیین), winter-sleep (زمستان خواب).Compound adjectives, combining two nouns (having a relation of simile): brick paving (آجرفرش), silk-voice (ابریشم آوا).Compound adjectives, combining a noun and a present stem giving a present participle: sky-link (آسمان پیوند), resistance-burn (backbreaking) تابسوز, intellect-split (mind-illuminator) (خرد شکاف).Compound adjectives, combining a noun and a past stem giving a past participle: mirage-born (سراب زاد), shadow-grown (سایه رست).Compound adjectives, combining an adjective and a present stem: sharp-shine (تیزتاب), bright-adorn (روشن آرا).Derivative adjectives, derived from adding the suffix “-nāk” to a noun: odor+nāk (fragrant) (بویناک), smoky+nāk (smoky) (دودناک).Derivative adjectives, derived from adding the suffix “-ān” to a verb: germinate+ān (germinant, sprouting) (رویان), wash+ān (detergent) (شویان).Compound-derivative adjectives, derived from adding the suffix “-ān” to a noun-present stem combination: wing-open+ān (flying) (بال گشایان), shadow-drag+ān (shadow making) (سایه کشان).Compound-derivative adjectives, derived from adding the suffix “-gūn” (-like) to a compound noun: moon-shine+gūn (moonshine-like) (ماهتابگون).Compound-derivative adjectives, derived from adding the intensifying infix “-ā” between a reduplicated djective: green-ā-green (absolutely green) (سبزاسبز), soft-ā-soft (extremely soft) (نرمانرم).It should be noted that this paper disregards studying the common Persian compound/derivative nouns or adjectives used in Shafi’i-Kadkani’s poems, such as harm-doer (maleficent) (زیانکار),background (پیشینه), skillful (چیره دست), capillary (مویرگ), ration-eater (hireling) (جیره خوار), shamefaced (شرمگین), ill-fated (شوربخت), and many more similar examples.

Inventing word combinations is a distinguishing element in language, and a factor in bringing it out of its quotidian use. Compound and derivative nouns and adjectives in Shafi’i-Kadkani’s poems, have an idiosyncratic structure and an outstanding frequency. Besides making use of common combinations in old Persian poetry, he, if necessary, invents combinations, forms the compound and derivative words as he intends, and employs them in his poems. His skillfulness in inventing combinations brings an eye-catching sitting of combinational neologisms to his linguistic context eventually leading to a revival in his language. Moreover, Shafi’i-Kadkani paves the way for making and using such combinations in future, and in his turn, expands the lexical amount and enrichment of Persian language.The total number of compound and derivative nouns and adjectives invented and used by Shafi’i-Kadkani in his three poetic collections, counting the narrowly used compound nouns and adjectives in previous Persian poetry, is 85 (nouns) and 93 (adjectives).Investigating the nouns and adjectives used in Shafi’i-Kadkani’s three poetic collection gives the implicit result that his innovation in making and using compound and derivative nouns and adjectives in his first poetic collection, “A mirror for voices” (including 17 poem-books composed in 1337-1355), reaches to a total of 24 nouns and 32 adjectives (the sum total of 56). In his second collection, “The mountain deer’s second millennium” (including his next five poem-books), the number rises to 44 nouns and 44 adjectives (the sum total of 88), and in his third collection, “An infant called happiness” (including his five most recent poem-books), the number falls to 15 nouns and 18 adjectives (the sum total of 33).Considering the equal volume and temporal order of composing those three collections, it’s revealed that making and using such compound and derivative words in his second collection, enjoys a rise in relation to his first one, but meets a small fall in his last collection.

Focalization is a way of communicating or acquiring knowledge (information) in narratives. Studying ways of focalization in narrative means understanding and analyzing how the narrator distributes information. In different scenes of the story, the narrator, depending on the reaction he expects from the reader, gives the reader more information, equal to or less than the characters in the story. If the reader's knowledge is more than personalities, the result is suspense and if the reader's knowledge is equal to the characters, his reaction to the events and actions of the story’s characters is curiosity. And if the reader knows less about the story's characters than about the events, he is surprised. The purpose of this study is to investigate the ways of information distribution in the Shahnameh narrative of Khosrow and Shirin's story. It tries to explain methods and techniques of information distribution in the story and its impact on the reader.

Gérard Genette was among the first narratology specialist that draw attention to the distinction between seeing and telling in the narrative and set the two factors of focalization and narrative against each other. By proposing this contrast, he attempted to avoid the common misconception of the two concepts of narrative mood and narrative voice where the former refers to focalization in narrative and the latter to narrative.Focalization is, in Genette's view, the view that things are inexplicably seen, understood, and evaluated and it is one way of expressing or acquiring knowledge through narration where two components are necessary: The Actor or Focalizator who, with his perception, directs the story, and Focalized (object), something or someone that the Focalizator sees. In other words, both the narrator and the characters give us information about the story world in different ways. Despite the narrator who speaks about his perception, emotion and ideology, the character does not say or give anything precisely, but actually feels it when he sees something or hears something about it. The narrator is the communicative voice we hear through him, the voice, the emotion, and the ideology of the character.Narration is the act of narrating and telling the story by the narrator and it is done when knowledge is unevenly distributed. There is no possibility for narration in a world where all viewers are complete and omniscient. Thus, examining the focalization practices in the narrative, means understanding and analyzing how the narrator distributes information. In Genette's opinion, narration can lack focus, depending on the narrator's presence in the narrative and the extent to which the narrator transfers information to the reader. Either it has an internal focus, that is, a person narrating a fixed or variable position or having an external focus.

The methodology of this study is based on text description and analysis based on the structuralist narrative views of Genett and Rimmon Kenan. The method of analysis is based on dividing the story into three sequences and explaining the focalization techniques in each sequence. In each sequence, the most influential and contributing factors in distributing consciousness to the story are described as it is not possible to mention all the changes in the narrator's perspective or other focalizer of the story, nor does it lead to significant differences in research findings.

One of the most important aspects of artistic beauty of Shahnameh is Ferdowsi's art of storytelling and narration techniques. Narrationon techniques are all techniques that lead to the creation of different narratives of a story, the sequence in which events actually occur and is understandable from the text, and this requires narration, meaning the action or process of creating a manuscript. Narration is a way to alternate knowledge or awareness and is a set of possibilities to provide and monitor our access to a changing field of information. Therefore, attention to narrative techniques, can explain how information is distributed and presented and the effect of the text on the reader.Studying Ferdowsi's narrative techniques and the way information and focalization are provided in Khosrow and Shirin's story shows that the most important method of creating diversity in the narrative is changing the narrator-focalizer’s point of view and the dominant aspect of focalization in the story is objective focalization by the narrator-focalizer. Except from the opening scene, the wise narrator-focalizer's perspective is limited to one or a few characters or a closed scenes from a specific location, and except from the end of "About the greatness of Khosrow", it provides the reader with information, equal to the characters.In the story, the number of internal focalization (narrative from the perspective of characters) is much less than external focalization and in most cases, the internal focalizer places one person in the focalized position, thus revealing the focalizing emotions relative to the focalizing. In this way, the reader’s information is equal to the personality-focalizer and the reaction of the reader is curiosity.The dominant aspect of the story's coherence in the deep structure of the work is the ideological aspect of the story's focalization. As the narrator arranges all the events of the text from the beginning to the end in line with his ideology, he encompasses all the sounds in the text as a function of his voice.The main worldview of the narrative is the world’s unreliability, which is emphasized by the ill-favored image of prosperous people and the contradictions in the story. The author's voice, where clearly heard and distinct from the narrator's voice, is another emphasis on the ideological aspects of the text, which on one hand emphasizes the inescapability of death to the narrator's worldview and, on the other, expresses the author's ideology whosees himself immortal through speech.

In this paper, the Shahnameh narrative of "Khosrow and Shirin" has been studies in terms of focalization methods in order to understand how knowledge is distributed in. The results of this study show that the wise narrator-focalizer narrows the scope of his information through the change of perspective and objective focalization and equates the reader with the character in term of information seeking. Therefore, in the entirety of the work, suspense is the most important factor in motivating the reader towards the text, which is created by the reader's pre-conscious awareness of the main character’s destiny and because of the equal awareness of the reader and the story's characters, and in the part of the narrative of the story, stimulating curiosity is the most important reason for reading the text.The dominant aspect of the story's coherence in the deep structure of the work is the ideological aspect of the story's focalizations, which is perfectly consistent with the direct narration and clear voice of the narrator in cases where he speaks directly to the reader. The main worldview of the narrative, besides the world’s unreliability, is the ideology of the national epic of Iran; An ideology that considers art and wisdom indispensable to the king and considers killing the king a disgrace. The author's voice, while clearly heard and distinct from the narrator's voice, emphasizes the ultimate ideology of the text and the unconditional excellence of art and speech over royal glory.

Humor is an unusual domain of reversed realities which simultaneously deals with the real and unreal. Therefore one must be attentive to various forms and types of humor in the texts studied in this regards. Humor might take the forms of satire, lampoon and irony, and can be seen in wits, anecdotes and tales. In this article, after introducing definitions for various forms and types of humor, examples of the humorous tales in “The Thousand and One Nights” are mentioned, classified in three categories, and studied according to the typical characters. In the final step the comic techniques of these tales such as reversal, heterogeneity, contradiction, exaggeration, conflict, and surprise ending are examined.