mohammad moghaddam vahed

IntroductionWater deficit compared to other abiotic stresses is the most important factor limiting the growth and production in all crops, especially wheat. Investigating the response of crop plants under stress conditions is the best way to produce drought-tolerant cultivars and improve yield under stress conditions. The challenge of breeding for drought stress tolerance in all crop plants, is to achieve a rapid screening method of genotypes and genetic improvement of yield under these difficult environmental conditions. The objective of this experiment was to identify high-yielding and water deficit tolerant genotypes in an F4 generation population of bread wheat.Materials and methodsThe plant materials of this experiment were 90 genotypes of the F4 generation resulting from a cross between two bread wheat cultivars (Arta, a spring cultivar sensitive to salinity and drought stresses, and Arg, a tolerant cultivar to salinity and drought stresses). These genotypes along with the parents, were evaluated in split plots based on randomized complete block design with three replications under two conditions (normal irrigation and non-irrigation from the pollination stage) in the research farm of Faculty of Agriculture, Tabriz University, Tabriz, Iran, in 2014. Evaluating the genotypes were done by simultaneous application of stress tolerance index (STI) based on yield-related traits including grain yield (STI-Y), spike weight (STI-S), 1000-grain weight (STI-1000) and harvest index (STI-HI) and identifying the relationship between these indices using genotype × trait biplot analysis. The studied genotypes were ranked based on the relationships in the biplot, and the high yield and water deficit tolerant genotypes were identified.Research findingsThe results of biplot showed that the first two principal components explained 72% (46% and 26%, respectively) of total variance in the studied population. Acute and closed angle between the STI-Y, STI-S and STI-HI vectors indicated a positive correlation between these traits, while the open and obtuse angle between the STI-Y and STI-HI traits with STI-1000 showed a negative correlation between them. In contrast, an quadrant angle was observed between STI-S and STI-1000 vectors, indicating that these two traits were independent and uncorrelated. In total, according to the relationships in the biplot and based on the combination of STI-Y and STI-1000 vectors, genotypes No. 84, 45, 89 and 15 were identified and introduced as the highest grain yield and most water deficit tolerant genotypes.ConclusionThe results of this experiment led to identification of superior and promising genotypes with higher yield potential and more tolerance to water deficit stress. Genotypes No. 84, 45, 89 and 15, which were superior to the stress-tolerant parent, after the purification steps, can be introduced as suitable genotypes for cultivation under water stress conditions as well as in normal environments. These genotypes can be used as drought tolerant parental lines in future breeding programs.

Drought, cold, high-salinity and heat are major abiotic stresses that severely reduce the yield of food crops worldwide (Mantri et al., 2012). Iran with 6.8 million hectares of the state after India and Pakistan is considered in the first rank for threats of salinity stress (Moameni, 2010). High salinity can cause ionic toxicity, osmotic stress and oxidative stress, leading to gradual lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation and inactivation of antioxidant enzymes (Tanou et al 2009). Ascorbate peroxidase has several basic roles in plant physiological processes such as growth, development and metabolism and acts as a regenerative agent for many free radicals, especially hydrogen peroxide. Therefore, the damage caused by oxidative stress is minimized (Kocsy et al 2005). The superoxide dismutase enzyme converts free oxygen radical (O2-) into hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and oxygen (O2), which is the first reaction to detoxify ROS. In the next step, hydrogen peroxide produced by the catalase enzyme and several other peroxides are eliminated (DaCosta & Huang 2007). Most results have shown that antioxidant enzymes system activity in barely acts to reduce the caused oxidative stress by salinity and reducing the cellular damage degree (Kim et al 2005).The aim of this study was to evaluate salt tolerant and susceptible varieties of barley cultivars through grain yield and to evaluate the activity of some antioxidant enzymes to evaluate their potential in breeding programs as an indirect selection tool.

In this research, a factorial experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The first factor consisted of 7 barley cultivars (Afzal, Kavir, Valfajr and Nosrat as tolerant; Yoosef, Sahara and Reihan as susceptible) and the second factor was different salinity levels (0, 8 and 12 dS.m-1). This research cultivated in vases in greenhouse of Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran during 2016-17.Ascorbate peroxidase enzyme activity was measured by Nakano & Asada (1981), Catalase enzyme activity was measured by Chance and Maehly (1955) and Superoxide dismutase enzyme activity was measured by Gianopulotis and Reis (1977) methods. MSTATC, SPSS, and Excel softwares were used for statistical analyses.

Analysis of variance showed significant differences among cultivars and salinity levels and interaction of genotype × salinity on activity of ascorbate peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase enzymes and grain yield in plant. Investigation of changes in activity of antioxidant enzymes at different salinity levels showed that their activity increased significantly with increasing salinity level from 0 to 8 and 12 dS and it was higher in tolerant and semi-tolerant cultivars. Evaluation of changes in grain yield at different salinity levels showed that their grain yield decreased significantly with increasing salinity level from 0 to 8 and 12 dS.m-1 and it was higher in susceptible cultivars. Correlation of ascorbate peroxidase enzyme with grain yield was positive and significant. Results showed that Nosrat and Kavir cultivars had the highest tolerance index (STI) and in terms of other traits studied, they were in better condition and they can be used in barley breeding programs.

The results of this study showed that salt tolerant cultivars were superior to other cultivars in terms of studied traits. Also, Nosrat and Kavir cultivars had higher antioxidant enzymes activity and yield under salinity stress, which could be considered in barley breeding programs for salinity tolerance.

In order to determine the heritability and genetic parameters of some agronomic traits in barely (Hordeum vulgare L.) cultivars, a seven-parent half diallel (F1 crosses + parents) was conducted in the non-stress and salt stress (8 and 12 ds m-1) conditions in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Genetic analysis was performed by Hayman’s method and Griffing’s fixed model, method 2. The slope of linear regression of Wr on Vr were significantly higher than 0 and had not significant difference with 1 indicating the additive-dominant model was satisfied in all cases. The narrow-sense heritability of traits was medium to high (0.4-0.8) but their broad-sense heritability was estimated relatively high (0.7-0.9). Results of regression graphs showed that Afzal parent had the most dominant allele. The significance of “a” component in most of the studied traits indicated the presence of the additive effects in controlling of traits. The significance of “b” component in most of the studied traits indicated the presence of the dominance effects in controlling of traits. The proportion of positive and negative genes was lower than 0.25 in all of the traits (except for grain weight per spike in 12 ds m-1 salinity), indicating the presence of asymmetry in the distribution of the positive and negative alleles in the parents. Based on general combining ability effects, it was concluded that under salinity, cultivar “Kavir” had favorable alleles in plant height, grain weight per spike and 100 grain weight traits and can be used as a general parent in breeding programs. Estimates of high broad-sense heritability and narrow-sense heritability in most traits indicated that these genetic materials were promising for breeding under normal and salinity stress conditions.

Determination of genetic diversity level is fundamental for identification of desirable parents to be used in different breeding programs, and molecular markers have been succssfully taken for the analysis of genetic diversity in various crops. The objective of this study was to inversitgate genetic diversity among 28 genotypes of barley using root and shoot characters and 14 ISSR primers through two separate experiments (greenhouse and molecular experiments).

The greenhouse experiment was carried out as randomized complete block design with two replications in the research greenhouse of Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Iran. The traits measured in the greenhouse were root dry weight, root volume, shoot dry weight and ratio of root to shoot dry weight. The molecular experiment was conducted to study the diversity of barley genotypes using 14 ISSR primers. The polymorphic information content and marker index were calculated for each ISSR primer.

Analysis of variance showed significant differences among the genotypes under study for all traits. According to the mean comparisons, genotypes 3, 5, 9 and 20 had higher mean in terms of all characters. The cluster analysis, based on Ward 's algorithm and Euclidean distance, grouped genotypes in four clusters. Group 3 had the highest mean in terms of all of the studied characters. Out of 14 ISSR primers used, 11 primers generated scorable and appropriate banding pattern. A total of 559 polymorphic bands with 80-3000 bp were produced. Polymorphic information content was estimated to be between 0.116 and 0.252 with the average of 0.187. The marker index ranged from 3.528 to 27.972 with the mean of 9.704. Classification of the studied barley genotypes was conducted by molecular data using neighbor joining algorithm based on distance coefficient of number of differences, which assigned the genotypes into four groups. There was a concordance between the grouping of genotypes based on molecular data and the characters in the greenhouse, but this concordance was not complete. Association analysis of ISSR markers with measured characteristics of barley genotypes showed that ISSR1 and ISSR5 had significant relationship with most of the root and shoot traits.

Highgenetic diversity was observed among barley genotypes with respect to root and shoot traits. The results showed that ISSR primers have the ability to separate barley genotypes from each other. Also, it seems that ISSR markers under study can be used in marker assisted selection of barley genotypes in breeding programs.

To study the inheritance of several agronomic and physiological traits, an experiment was conducted in the research station of the University of Tabriz, Iran, under water deficit stress and normal conditions using the generation mean and generation variance analyses. The generations were produced from the cross of Arg and Moghan3 varieties. The experiment was conducted as a split-plot design based on randomized complete blocks with two replications. The irrigation conditions were arranged in the main plots and generations in the subplots. In the stress condition, irrigation was withheld after pollination. Based on the results of generation means analysis for flag leaf length in the normal condition and flag leaf width, flag leaf area and leaf chlorophyll content in both conditions, the additive-dominance model explained variation among generation means. For other traits, including flag leaf length under water stress condition and plant height, peduncle length, spike length, fertile tillers, days to heading, number of grains per spike, head weight, straw weight, biomass, grain yield and harvest index in both water-stress and normal conditions, the six-parameter model was fit for the generation means implying the presence of non-allelic interactions in the inheritance of these traits. Broad sense heritability and narrow sense heritability for the traits were estimated as 0.70 - 0.99 and 0.03 - 0.30 in the water-stress conditions and 0.60 - 0.99 and 0.10 - 0.55 in the normal conditions, respectively. At both conditions, the dominance genetic variance was higher than the additive genetic variance for most of the traits under study. The average degree of dominance for all characters at both water-stress and normal conditions was greater than unity which showed the existence of over-dominance gene action in controlling the traits under study. These results suggest the need for exploiting non-additive gene action by producing hybrid varieties in wheat if breeders overcome the barriers of producing hybrid seed.

Study of heritability and gene action to improve agronomic and physiological traits, especially under drought stress conditions, are very important. The objectives of this study were to investigate heritability for important agronomic traits and some physiological characters in a cross between two spring wheat cultivars. The experiment was carried out using different generations (BC1, BC2, F3, RF3) derived from crosses between two cultivars, Arg (tolerant to salinity and drought) and Moghan3, under drought stress conditions using randomized complete block design with two replications in 2014 cropping season at the University of Tabriz research station, Iran. In all plots, irrigation was withheld after antesis until the end of season. Generation mean and generation variance analyses were used to estimate gene action and genetic variance components, respectively, for agronomic and physiological traits of wheat under water deficit conditions. Based on the analysis of variance, significant differences were observed between generations for peduncle length, spike length, flag leaf width, flag leaf area, number of fertile tillers, leaf chlorophyll content, days to heading, spike weight, straw weight, biomass, grain yield and harvest index which revealed the presence of genetic differences between two parents. The generation mean analysis for the flag leaf width and flag leaf area showed that the three-parameter model was the best fit. However, for other traits chi-square of the three parameter model was significant, indicating the presence of non-allelic interactions in the inheritance of these traits. Although both types of additive and dominance effects were significant in control of the studied traits, but dominance component was larger than the additive effect. The dominance × dominance epistasis was also more important than other epistasis components for the studied traits. The broad-sense and narrow-sense heritability of the traits ranged from 0.754 to 0.941 and from 0.144 to 0.579, respectively. Estimates of variance components revealed that dominance variance was greater than additive variance for peduncle length, spike weight, straw weight, biomass, grain yield and harvest index. While, the additive genetic variance was higher than the dominance genetic variance for spike length, flag leaf width, flag leaf area, fertile tiller number, chlorophyll content and days to heading. The average degree of dominance was more than one for all of the traits which indicated the presence of over-dominance gene action in controlling these traits. Presence of non-additive genetic effects in controlling the traits showed the necessity of selection in advanced segregating generations, when populations are relatively fixed line, using bulk-pedigree method or for development of hybrid varieties in wheat, should the pollination and male sterility barriers will be overcome.

Development of high yielded varieties is important to balance between production rates and grewing food needs of human population. For genetic analysis of yield and some important traits in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.), We conducted line×tester analysis with ten lines and ten testers (three winter parents and seven spring parents). First generation hybrids as well as 20 parents (120 genotypes) were cultivated as a alpha lattice design with two replications under two different conditions (normal and delayed planting date) and days to flowering, flowering duration, plant height, number of primary branchs in plant, thousand seed weight and yield were studied. The results showed that the difference between genotypes is significant and the environment had a different effect on genotypes. High levels of broad sense heritability (from 73.65% for number of primary branches in plant to 87.65% for grain yield) showed that the genetic variance was more than environmental effect. Estimation of less than unit for the mean squares of the general combining ability to the mean squares of thespecific combining ability ratio and low to moderate value of narrow sense heritability (from 29% for plant height to 70% for grain yield) showed that non-additive variance is the major factor in controling of studied traits. The spscific combining ability of hybrids and hetero estimation showed that introduced hybrids in this study could be successfully used in breeding programs and improve the oilseed rape traits. The T9 × L2, T3 × L2, T3 × L9 and T3 × L5 hybrids in normal condition and T3 × L5, T7 × L6, T5 × L10 and T7 × L7 in delayed planting conditions with maximum heterosis for yield were potential hybrids for using in breeding programs for increased yield.

Drought is the main abiotic stress seriously influencing wheat production and quality in the world. Information about the inheritance of drought tolerance is necessary to determine the type of breeding program and to develop tolerant cultivars. In this study, Bayesian inference was used to explore the nature and amount of gene effects controlling yield and its components under water deficit and normal conditions by assessment of contrasting bread wheat parents (Bam and Arta) and derived generations from them. Bayesian inference using the Gibbs Variable Selection (GVS) approach and the Deviance Information Criterion (DIC) were applied to identify the most important gene effects and to compare models including different gene effects. The GVS and DIC provided an efficient way to perform the analysis and to introduce the more appropriate models. It can be inferred from the results that the Bayesian analysis provides a robust inference of genetic architecture of yield and yield components in wheat. Since the additive, dominance and epistatic gene actions involved in the inheritance of agronomic characters under both water stress and normal conditions, methods which utilize all types of gene effects, such as hybrid seed production, may be useful in improving yield and its stability in wheat.

Drought stress is one of the factors that reduces yield in the world. Considering that wheat is grown mostly in semi-arid areas, much attention has been paid to develop drought tolerant varieties. This experiment was conducted during 2013-2014 in Tabriz University research farm, Iran. In this investigation the inheritance of some agronomic and physiological traits was studied in the field condition through generations mean analysis. The generations were produced from the cross of Arg (tolerant to drought) and Moghan3 (sensitive to drought) varieties. The experiment was a split plot design based on randomized complete blocks with two replications. The irrigation conditions were arranged in the main plots and generations in the subplots. In the stress condition, irrigation was withheld after pollination. Based on the analysis of variance, significant difference were observed among different generations in terms of plant height, peduncle length, flag leaf length, flag leaf width, number of fertile tillers, leaf chlorophyll content, leaf temperature, days to maturity, spike weight, straw weight, biomass, grain yield and harvest index. The interaction between generations and irrigation conditions was significant only for grain yield. The generation mean analysis in both normal and drought stress conditions showed that chi-square of three parameter model was significant for all of the studied characteristics, indicating the presence of non-allelic interactions in the inheritance of these traits. The broad sense and narrow sense heritabilities for the traits under study were estimated as 0.502-0.946 and 0.244-0.429 in the normal condition and 0.653-0.951 and 0.221-0.377 in the water stress condition, respectively. The average degree of dominance for all of the characters in both normal and water stress conditions was greater than one which indicated the existence of over-dominance gene action in controlling these traits. At both conditions, the dominance genetic variance was higher than the additive genetic variance for all of the traits. The results indicate the necessity of selection in advanced generation or exploiting dominance gene action in the breeding programs, if hybrid varieties are produced in the wheat plant.

To identify the effectis traits on grain yield under normal irrigation and water deficit conditions, 65 wheat recombinant inbred lines derived from the crossing of Yecora Rojo American cultivar (a high yielder, dwarf and early) and No.49 Iranian line (medium yielder, tall and late) split-plot experiments based on randomized complete bloks design with two replications was performed at Agriculture Research Station, University of Tabriz, in 2013. Irrigation levels were considered as main factor and lines as sub factor. The analysis of variance showed that the differences among irrigation levels for grain yield, plant height, peduncle length, root volume and root weight were significant. The differences among wheat lines and intraction between line irrigation levels for all of the traits were also significant. Under normal irrigation condition, grain yield had significant an positieve correlation with plant height, highest spike, number of seeds per spike, peduncle length, 1000 seed weight, spike length, straw yield and root length. Under drought stress condition, grain yield had significant and positive correlation with the number of grains per spike, number of fertile spikes, peduncle length, root length and straw yield. Path analysis, based on the stepwise regression method, revealed that the plant height, peduncle length, number of grains per spike, straw yield, number of fertile spike and root length undernormal irrigation condition and number of grains per spike, 1000 grain weight, number of fertile spikes, root length and root weight under water condition were effective traits on seed yield.

One of the plant breeding strategies for increasing zinc content of wheat grain is employing natural genetic variability of this trait. To investigate genetic variation of traits related to zinc efficiency among Iranian spring wheat cultivars and determining the relationship between these traits and grain yield and its components, two separate experiments were conducted based on randomized complete blocks design with three replications. One of the experiments was under zinc foliar application condition and the other lacked the mentioned condition. Analysis of variance was performed based on combined analysis. Results of stepwise regression, correlation and path analysis indicated independence of endosperm zinc content and embryo and aleuron zinc content from grain yield and its components with any direct or indirect significant effects. Results of combined analysis determined that there was not considerable genetic variability about traits related to zinc efficiency among examined wheat varieties and heritability of these traits was low. Therefore crossing and selection among these spring varities is not enough efficient for promotion of grain zinc content and it would be nessecary to crossing between these variteis and other zinc efficient landraces, cultivars or wild relatives.

mapping the QTLs of agronomic and physiological traits, 149 double haploid (DH) lines from a cross between an Australian cultivar, Clipper (salt susceptible), and an Algerian landrace, Sahara3771 (salt tolerant), were evaluated under natural saline (Yazd Station, ECsoil=10-12.8 ds/m and ECwater= 9-10 ds/m) and normal (Karaj Station, ECsoil and ECwater ~2-2.5 ds/m) environments. There were remarkable differences between parents and among the lines for studied traits, including days to heading, relative water content, chlorophyll content, plant height, spike length, days to maturity, biomass, grain yield, harvest index, grain number per spike, 1000 grain weight, Na and K contents and Kﳖ ratio. QTL analysis was performed using the genetic linkage map consisted of 517 molecular markers distributed evenly on all seven barley chromosomes spanning 1502 cM of barley genome based on composite interval mapping method. A total of 72 QTLs for the measured traits were determined, from which 40 QTLs were under normal and 32 QTLs were under salinity stress conditions. The phenotypic variation explained by individual QTLs ranged from 2.7 to 61.8%. A major QTL related to biomass, grain number per spike, grain yield, plant height and 1000 grain weight was identified on chromosome 2H in the vicinity of Vrs1 marker locus. In addition, for plant height, biomass, grain number per spike and 1000 grain weight, some stable QTL(s) under both salinity and normal conditions were identified on that locus which considered as salinity related QTLs. These QTLs can be useful in breeding programs for improving salt tolerance using marker-assisted selection.

In order to determine the best developmental stage of soybean at which maximum seed quality is attained under different shadings (S1, S2, S3: 0, 35 and 75% shade, respectively) and irrigation treatments (I1, I2, I3, I4: irrigation after 60, 90, 120 and 150 mm evaporation from class A pan, respectively), two split plot experiments using randomized complete block design with three replications were conducted in 2011 and 2012. Seeds were harvested at five day intervals in eight stages. Maximum seed weight (mass maturity) was achieved at 41-54 days after flowering. Seed filling duration decreased with decreasing water supply, but it was increased by shading. As a result, maximum seed weight, germination rate and seedling dry weight of seeds from shaded plants were higher than those of unshaded plants. However, minimum electrical conductivity and maximum germination percentage of seeds from shaded and unshaded plants under different irrigation treatments were almost similar. Maximums of seed quality parameters were obtained 1 to 9 days after mass maturity, depending on the light availability and irrigation intervals. At earlier harvests, because of immaturity, and at later harvests, due to aging, seed physiological quality was low. It was concluded that high quality seeds of soybean can be produced under different irrigation and shading treatments, providing that the seeds are harvested at about 16-20% moisture content.

Each year، millions of liters of toxic liquid، are used to combat with pests and plant diseases in farms. The wide spread use of chemical pesticides causes great environmental hazards. Particles drift is one of the main problems in spraying which results in the contamination of farm lands، humans and animals. Management of particle size is regarded as the main factor in drift control. In this study، the effect of some parameters on the size of deposited particles on non-target areas was studied using statistical method. The effects of nozzle type (orifice size)، spraying pressure، spraying boom height and wind speed as effective factors on drift were examined. A horizontal wind tunnel with working section of 0. 47 m wide، 0. 75 m height and 5. 5 m long was used for testing. Experiment was performed in the form of factorial split-plot based on randomized complete block design with two replications. Droplets were measured in the treatment combinations of the type of flat-fan nozzle with three orifice area (11003- 0. 87 mm2، 11004-1. 18 mm2 and 11006- 1. 8 mm2)، spraying pressure (150، 275 and 400 kpa)، wind speed (1، 2 and 3 m s-1) and the boom height of (0. 35، 0. 55 and 0. 75 m). Water-sensitive papers were used at intervals of 0. 8، 1. 6 and 2. 4 m from the tip of nozzles for detecting droplets size. The factors of pressure، speed and height had positive effects on the droplet size at the desired distance، but the effect of nozzle size on droplet size was negative. In the regression model the coefficients of speed was higher than the others.

For evaluation of genetic diversity among improved alfalfa varieties and Iranian landraces, 12 populations including five improved varieties (Kaysari, Kadi, Ranger, Mesmir, Seariver) and seven landraces (Gharayonje, Amozeynadin, Rahnani, Tazekand, Shazand, Hamedani, Yazdi) were evaluated using agronomic traits and enzyme markers. Thirty-five individuals of each variety were grown and analyzed in separate pots in a unbalanced completely randomized design (CRD). Analysis of variance for agronomic traits showed significant differences for most of the traits among improved and landrace varieties. For esterase and peroxidase enzymes based on presence or absence of enzyme bands (1, 0) eleven polymprphic isozyme bands were detected. For improved and landrace varieties Shanon index mean was 0.48 ± 0.246 and 0.519 ± 0.193, respectively, furthermore Nei genetic diversity index mean for improved and landraces was 0.327 ± 0.181 and 0.352 ± 0.148 respectively, suggesting no difference between improved and landrace varieties was found. Analysis of relation between isozyme markers and agronomic traits showed that there are significant differences between the presence of POX-4 and wet and dry yield in improved varieties.

The main purpose of this study is measuring and comparing of peanut harvesting loss in manual and mechanical methods in addition to economic analysis of them. Hence, a field was selected in Astaneh-Ashrafiyeh and divided to three different plots. Two plots were applied to measure mechanical harvesting loss and third one was applied for manual harvesting loss. According to test results, the lowest percentage of loss was belonged to forward speed of 1.8 km/ha and soil moisture content of 19.9%. The obtained data from these conditions were compared with manual harvesting data. T-test results showed all variables were significant, except percent of undug pods in 1% level of probability. The total percent of pods loss in manual and mechanical harvesting obtained 3.487 and 20.23%, respectively. The results showed the mechanical harvesting in relation with manual harvesting reduces harvesting costs and increases loss costs. Comparing of decreased and increased costs in mechanical harvesting revealed using of harvester increase overall loss and applying of it not recommended.

The object of this study was evaluation of a walking tractor drawn peanut harvester at different conditions of soil moisture content and forward speed and comparing it with manual harvesting. The evaluation factors for peanut harvester were two levels of soil moisture content and three levels of forward speed. The results revealed that the effect of soil moisture content was only significant on the percent of unexposed pods loss, while the effect of forward speed was not significant for all loss. Comparing of harvester loss at best condition with manual harvesting loss revealed that there was significant difference between two methods of peanut harvesting. Manual harvesting loss was higher than mechanical harvesting loss in the percent of exposed and unexposed pods loss. The results of this study revealed that the usage mechanical harvesting instead of manual harvesting reduces harvesting loss, harvesting costs and timeliness costs. Therefore, usage of this harvester instead of manual harvesting entirely recommended.

One of the emphasized methods to promote women participation in rural society, as they are half of it, is to form independent women groups for collective action and team work. One of the methods that has been used in rural training and extension is to involve rural women leaders as "facilitators" for mobilization and capacity building in their society. In this study some personal and environmental factors that influence the success of facilitators in East Azarbaijan province will be examined drawing on the results of a field research that used face to face interviews and questionnaires in 6 counties. Questionnaire validity has been assessed by a number of subject specialists and academicians, and its reliability has been measured by using Cronbach's alpha which was equal to 88% and indicates appropriateness of research instruments. Findings show a significant relationship at 99% level between facilitator's success in generation and sustenance of independent women group activities (as dependent variable) and rural women acceptance of facilitators, facilitator connection with extension agents, her awareness of NGO concept (as independent variables). No significant relationship can be detected between dependent variable and variables related to the use of mass communication tools.