mojtaba monshi zadeh

This article is a comparative study on the relation between the Prototype Theory and historical-philological semantics in Iranian languages. Regarding the actual entailments in the framework of the Prototype Theory (Rosch: 1978), in which words considered to be the central and peripheral members of a semantic category, in correlation with a morpho-phonological study on two Persian words, RUX and RŪY, a number of diachronic samples of radial categorization (Lakoff: 1990) are going to be proposed, considering the Old Iranian   as the prototype of a particular semantic network, kept in the corpus of the word. From a general perspective, this article sets out the function of the Prototype Theory and its consequences in Iranian etymological and literary studies.

This article accounts for the acoustic grounds of the diachronic lenition of Old Persian /k/ to [ʧ] and [z] in certain verbal (present tense) and nonverbal forms and to [x] in the past tense of the same verbs, in /V __ [a, e]/ and /V__[t]/ contexts respectively. In order to replicate the phonetic context of these diachronic changes within the framework of laboratory phonology, present day Persian forms containing the same phonetic contexts were uttered twice by two male speakers of Persian and recorded and analyzed using the Praat software (version 5363). The results of the acoustic analysis of the recorded samples and Independent-Samples t-test indicated that [k] shows a high degree of fronting within the context of the stressed vowels [á, é]. At the same time, aspiration in intervocalic position motivates the spirantization/affrication of this consonant. Intervocalic fronted [c] and [ʧ] are acoustically similar to each other as well as to [ʃ] and [s]. The consonants [c] and [x] have certain common acoustic characteristics when they appear before [t]. Therefore, [c] is prone to be weakened and interpreted as a fricative/affricate in such contexts.

There is a close relationship between verb and semantics and the way verbs are used to induce concepts. Poets and writers inadvertently influence their emotions in choosing actions and use verbs whose semantic load reflects the emotions and feelings of the speaker. In other words, in addition to conveying meaning, time and place, verbs convey emotions and feelings. The phonetic structure of the verb, in addition to its semantic role, indirectly expresses the concept that passes in the poet's mind through a set of sounds. In this research, the emotional burden of verbs in Ferdowsi Shahnameh is examined. It can be said that in epic books, each sentence has an emotional burden that is full of meanings of "positive, negative, and neutral". The main purpose of this study is to investigate and determine the emotional load of verbs and what its components are and the relationship between collocational elements and verbs in terms of positive, neutral, and negative emotional load. In this study, examples of verbs are neither speaker-centered nor listener-centered. Discourse is also very important, that is, the relationship between people determines the emotional burden of the verb. It also defines semantic space according to linguists’ focus on semantic differentiation. At the same time, the study of semantics in emotional actions is most important. The term semantics is generally associated with describing the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. In linguistic terms, semantics examines the relationships between signs and symbols with concepts; and the knowledge of knowing the meaning.

Modal verbs are a group of helping verbs that represent modal concepts in relation to the main verb and are the result of the occurrence of grammaticalization, the process by which the grammatical items are created. In this study we investigate the grammaticalization of modal verb vastǝn (have to) in Gilaki, one of the Iranian languages of the western branch. Gilaki is a language with poor historical data, so we use Hopper's principles of gammaticalization (1991) as the main framework of the research to identify cases of grammaticalization. We also use the concepts word order, reanalysis, analogy and desemanticization. We measure the effectiveness of these principles and in some cases we present an alternative analysis. In this paper after introducing the theoretical framework, we analyze the data. The results show that with regard to borrowing of modal element of obligation from Persian to Gilaki, two functional items including modal element of tendency and negation element are specific for Gilaki. Changing in the imperative mood system is the most important result that is obtained through grammaticalization of modal verb vastǝn which makes Gilaki different from other Iranian languages.

This present research studies ergativity in the Taleshi dialect. This dialect is spoken in some parts of Guilan and appears in three main different types including Central, Northern, and Southern. The type of dialect surveyed in this article is the southern one. It is spoken in Sehsar village. The data are collected in a field study and by interviewing thirty native speakers of this dialect. Ergativity is a grammatical pattern in which the subject of an intransitive clause is treated in the same way as the object of a transitive clause, and differently from the transitive subject. This dialect follows a split-ergative system. This means that, in a present clause, it takes advantage of the nominative-accusative pattern, hence in a past transitive clause it takes advantage of the ergative-absolutive pattern. This research has been done to answer these questions: Is the ergative marker -i the only indicator of ergativity and ergative constructions in this dialect? Which constructions can be considered ergative ones? And on what factors is ergativity based on? After surveying language witnesses of this dialect, these findings have been achieved: Ergativity is not limited only to ergative marker -i , but oblique pronouns and plural nouns ending with -un in a transitive clause and past tense as well as perfect aspect can be the other indicators of ergative constructions. And finally, ergativity is based on past tense and perfect aspect.

The idea of Manichaean and Mazdakian Affected on later ideas. Except for rituals hostility to oppression is one of the most important of some sects of Mysticism and Sufism. In this research it was studied the Zoroastrian and Manichean and Islamic literature and unfolded the origin of jar of some Sufism discoursesagainst to oppression is the Manichaean and Mazdakian ideas, this study based on the theory of discourse of Laclau and mouffe (1985). After the study of sources, we will understand the Manichaeans and Mazdakians Were a pattern for the dissidents of the Abbasids.Often the Abbasid Caliphate attributed the dissidents to the Manichaean and Mazdakian (The heretics in the Sassanid period) and they are suppressed by the Abbasids. for the simulation of Mystics to the rioters in the Sassanid period the style of suppression to them (Mystics) very simulated to the hanging of the followers of Mazdak and Mani. Thus, the nodal point of the opponents of Sassanian empire and Abbasid Caliphate was the moral corruption but the nodal point of them was the justice.

Much of the literature about Persian ‘compound verbs’ has been concerned with their ‘true’ instances. About four centuries after identification of this construction, however, there is yet little agreement on any single definition or conception of it among scholars. The present article aimed to show that this controversy was primarily a matter of terminology rather than conceptology. To this end, after reviewing major authors’ views on so-called "compound verbs", we examined various kinds of constructions involved according to linguists’ received definitions of the two concepts of ‘verb’ and ‘compound’. It turned out that i) there was no good reason for regarding ‘compound verbs’ as verbs and ii) being separable strings, they could hardly be considered as proper morphological “compounds”. We then suggested that all these kinds of constructions could well be subsumed under the rubric ‘complex predicates’ (whether semantic or grammatical), thus making it more likely to reach a consensus on the issue. 

The commonalities of meta-analytical literature on “compound verbs” in Persian can be summarized as follows:Taking for granted the existence of ‘compound verbs’
Examining and evaluating the current definitions of ‘compound verbs’ according to their own conceptions
Endorsing one or more previous opinions (with some minor modifications) without dealing with the nature of disagreement among scholars in recognizing the instances of ‘compound verbs’.

The variety of strings referred to as “compound verbs” covers a vast range. Having reviewed and compared representative opinions of authors and their definitions of these strings, we can sum up their viewpoints as follows:Incorporational verbs (like γazāxordan ‘to eat food’, lit. ‘food eat’) and verbal phrases (like azdastdādan ‘to lose’, lit. ‘from hand give’) were regarded as ‘compound verbs’ only by Dabir-Moghaddam, and experiencer-subject LVCs[1] (like dard-am gereft ‘it pained me’, lit. ‘to me pain took’) only by Khanlari.
Dabir-Moghaddam and Abolghassemi considered (some of) the auxiliary verb constructions (present perfect, past perfect, and passive) to be ‘compound verbs’.
Khayyampour and Dabir-Moghaddam regarded prefixed verbs (like bar-dāštan ‘pick up’) as ‘compound verbs’.
Vahidian did not believe in ‘compound verbs’ to exist in Persian at all.

Looking at the above-mentioned definitions by the authors, it was noted that their conceptions of ‘compound’ simply meant an expression that was not simple, i.e., not having more than one element, which is usually called ‘complex’ (as opposed to ‘simplex’) in English. A ‘complex verb’ is a verb with more than one element. The additional elements could be the result of various kinds of affixation (including personal endings or other inflectional or derivational affixes) or compounding. A proper ‘compound verb’, however, is a verb that is formed specifically through the morphological process of compounding, in which two lexical items (typically verbal roots) join together to form a lexeme.
Therefore, if by ‘compound’ we mean ‘complex’, i.e. by ‘compound’ consisting of two or more elements, then, a ‘compound verb’ would be certainly complex. Terminologically speaking, however, morphological criteria like inextensibility could not be excluded from compounds, including alleged ‘compound verbs’, which do not meet such criteria. For example, although kār(hā) kard ‘(s)he did thing(s)’, lit. ‘work(s) did’ despite its extensibility, is undoubtedly complex, to regard it as a morphological compound requires us to revise the concept of ‘compound’.
As for ‘verbness’ of a ‘compound verb’, given the linguists’ received definition of a verb, according to which ‘verb’ is the locus of indicating tense and often aspect, mood, and agreement, ‘verbness’ of so-called ‘compound verb’ was highly arguable because most of them were split by inflectional affixes intervening their two components. Thus, before referring to any of these strings as a ‘verb’, we needed to make clear in which sense their preverbal elements were parts of the verb.
It seemed that what the authors, such as Khanlari and Dabir-Moghaddam, meant by ‘verb’ in a ‘compound verb’ was a ‘predicate’ rather than a verb as such. This terminological confusion was rooted in the term ‘predicate’ having at least the following two senses:In semantics and formal logic, it is an element of a proposition, which express some property of, or relation between, argument(s). This kind of predicate can be called ‘semantic predicate’.
In traditional grammar, it is a part of a proposition, which does not include the ‘subject’. This type of predicate we can refer to as ‘grammatical predicate’.
Based on what we said about the terms ‘verb’ and ‘predicate’, it should be clear that what was referred to as ‘compound verbs’ in the literature was in fact a (semantic) complex predicates of the clauses involved. Thus, regarding them as ‘verbs’ as mentioned was a result of i) a confusion between the terms ‘verb’ and ‘predicate’ and ii) the fact that (semantic) predicates are typically verbs, while the verbs often consist of predicates of the sentences, in which they occurr.
To conclude, different kinds of strings, only a few of which were considered ‘compound verbs’ by some authors (and for which we questioned this designation), could well be included under rubric ‘complex predicates’ in spite of their structural variety.

In this study, 7 kinds of Persian analogical sound changes have been detected and classified in 12 analogical patterns in a set of 80 simple verbs. Those changes then have been analyzed based on two different but related optimality theoretic approaches including constraints reranking and input restructuring. It is shown that the analogical changes have basically occurred in the past stems and in a proportional inter-paradigmatic or intra-paradigmatic leveling pattern which is based on present stems. The phonetic similarity between the present stems, is the prerequisite of the analogy and achieving similarity in the past stems. Both kinds of the analogical sound changes are explainable through IDENT-INPUTOUTPUT constraints being dominated by parochial IDENT-OUTPUTOUTPUT ones in the former approach, and relying on Lexical Optimization concept in the latter.

In Gilaki, four forms are used to express permission: vâhâštǝn, bedâ, benǝ and tânǝstǝn. Some of these forms indicate the issuance of permission and some indicate the request for permission. These forms are the result of the grammaticalization of the forms that had lexical functions in the old periods of Iranian languages. In this article, the process of grammaticalization of the grams which represent permission has been investigated based on the data from Avestan, Old Persian, Middle Persian, and Persian literary texts. In most languages, permission is represented either through the grammaticalization of verbs that imply abandoning and leaving or through the grammaticalization of verbs that imply the concept of ability and are also used to express probability. In the Gilaki, the forms vâhâštǝn and bedâ, from the root harz / hard, which means "to leave", survived in the old period of Iranian languages. Benǝ, from the infinitive nehan, in addition to the lexical meaning of "putting", was used in a stage of language evolution to express the meaning of "leaving" and then its imperative verb was grammaticalized to express the concept of permission. Tânǝstǝn is also from the root tav meaning "to be able" in the old period of Iranian languages. This form in the course of evolution, in addition to the modal concept of ability, is also used to express possibility and permission.

In this Article, an Attempt is made to Examine a Number of seals Engraved in the Sassanid Period from the Collection of Mohsen Foroughi, which are Engraved with the Image of a horse, as well as the Descriptions of this Animal left in the Poetry and Prose of post-Islamic Persian Literature to Show the Similarities and Differences between the Pre-Islamic and Post-Islamic Periods, the first of which is Silent and the Second of which Speaks of this Animal, and to Answer the Question of the Extent to which the Engraved Descriptions of this Animal in the myths of the Pre-Islamic era have been in line with the Descriptions Quoted from Post-Islamic Literature or have been Changed. However, Sometimes some of these Engraved seals also had Writing on them, and this is a Clearer Evidence of the Concept of the Role Engraved on the seal in the use of the Animal in Question. The seals of this collection include different periods of the Sassanid era, which is from the middle to the end of this Period, and Perhaps the seals of the late Sassanid era are more Closely related to the Literary texts of the Islamic Period.

This study was conducted with the aim of detecting the social status of Gonabadi dialect as one of the oldest dialects of Iran via the analysis of the effect of social parameters like age, education, gender, and urbanity upon the frequency of Gonabadi usage in diverse fields including family, school, art, office, alley and street, and hobby. Our method was field analysis and the recruited instruments included questionnaire and interview. The sampling method was random based on which our statistical society included 240 participants from three age groups of 12 to 17, 25 to 35 and 50 and more were selected proportionally and equally from each gender and from two urban and rural societies. The results demonstrated that Gonabadi was the dominant language of informal fields, specifically, family, though in the more formal fields including school and office, Persian was the dominant language. Also, the propensity to utilize Persian among female, young, educated and urban participants outweighed this tendency in the male, older, uneducated, and rustic counterparts. Hence, on the light of these results, it could be asserted that Gonabadi is undergoing gradual trend of extinction in the realm of great Khorasan.

The present study examines the possible relationship between language, geography and the mobility of human populations at macro-level and proposes that the linguistic makeup of the Iranian plateau is shaped by the interplay between three factors: a geographic, a demogrpahic and a linguistic factor. The geographic factor (=ecological+topographic) shapes demographic features (=population mobility vs. sedentarism) by attracting populations to fertile lands vs. sending them off from hostile environments. The Iranian plateau is a vast land with a discrete topography; two features that reduce the possibility of communication between the languages of periphery, while at the same time put them in constant, longterm contact with the lingua franca of the plateau, contemporarily Persian and historically Pahlavi. As a result, the contact component of the linguistic factor (contact vs. isolation) is also determined by geographical and demographic factors at macro-level. This situation brings about what we have dubbed “±communicational accumulation.”, which in turn fascilitates convergence or divergence between different historical and/or geographical dialects. This constant cycle necessitates the existence of a common linguistic variety shared by various ethnicities acrossc the Iranian plateau, that is, the rise of either a lingua franca or a koiné out of local varieties. Iranian plateau has thus witnessed the birth of a lingua franca roughly at its center, spreading toward the multilingual peripheries.

In this article, using the approaches related to "critical discourse analysis" (CDA), the function of the word "Zindiq" (heretic) over time has been studied.Apparently, this word was used for the first time in Sassanid Pahlavi literature in the inscriptions of Cartier (Zoroastrian dogmatic priest) about the Manicheans who were oppressed and killed by this person.The word "Zindiq" was then used in Pahlavi, Arabic, and Persian literature to drive out and suppress ideological dissent.According to Foucault's classification of "exclusion" methods (in 1970), presumably, the derivation of "zand" to the Avestan root of zan- (to know) in "Zindiq" had been hidden by Zoroastrian priests in Sassanid period.In this study, it becomes clear that according to Fairclough (1995)'s three-layered model in discourse analysis and "intertextuality", relying on the texts of a period, the discourse function of words such as "Zindiq" is not understood or it is hardly possible to understand the discursive functions of this word in the texts of one area.It will also become clear that over time, Zandik's rejection of the discourse will expand, and that the leaders of any discourse, along with their followers, will often expel their opponents on Zandik charges in order to gain hegemony over their ideology.According to Laclau and Mouffe's (1985) theory of discourse, from during the juridical discourse of Sasanian period and later on, the new meanings were added to this word (Zindiq) by different "elements". Consequently, the function and meaning of "Zindiq" changed from “interpreter of Avesta” to innovator (heretic), sinister, magician, etc.Thus, the implications of lexical jurisprudence are useless without CDA for understanding the meaning and function of "Zindiq".

Scrambling has optional nature and a significant contribution to the discourse functional interpretation of clauses in Persian. Since scrambling is, unlike English, one of the features of Persian, the analysis of the scrambled clauses and their translated equivalents seem essential to improve their translation accuracy and quality. Therefore, this study which is of descriptive-analytical and corpus based aims to investigate the impact of rightward scrambling on Persian clauses and analyze their English translated equivalents. To this end, 297 Persian rightward scrambled clauses out of 5247 clauses were collected and analyzed along with their English translated equivalents within Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar (2014). The results show that rightward scrambling makes marked themes through rearrangements of themeta-functions. However, the translators have not paid enough attention to these clauses. In addition, Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar (2014) can be efficient means of evaluating the translation accuracy of these clauses into English.

The Dark Age (which lasted from Goodarz I to Farhad III) According to sources, the Parthians are ethnically related to the Dāhe tribe, a nomadic tribe in the Transoxiana region and the southern plains of Sabiri. The effect of the yellow tribes' pressure on the other tribes of the region caused the tribes of the region to turn to the west. Among these tribes are the Dāhe tribe, the Dāhe tribe mixed with the Yellow tribes in the area due to migration. This tribe is one of the white Sakāī tribes who came into contact with the yellow tribes. Immigrant skin of the region was influenced by their customs and beliefs. Numismatics and symbolism of this study indicate the conscious use of Greek symbols by the Parthians, changing these symbols in order to establish indigenous traditions and use these symbols in the legitimacy of the Parthian government. We do not have general and original information and due to being vague and with the disappearance of a lot of available evidence We will examine the role of icons on and on the back of coins and their classification and typology. The purpose is to compare coins with each other, which has helped the historical and numismatics section of this period. It is a tool to classify and compare coins with each other. The research method is classification and typology. Recognition of images of coins has been done through the approach of calligraphy and iconography.

In this study, we have investigated etymology of verb structure in inscriptions with a descriptive-analytical approach in order to study verb structure and grammar and their position in the sentence referring to the inscription. Regarding data collection, we have used library research and have presented grammar of the verbs through taking notes. In order to optimize studying etymology and correct translation of the words, we have adopted ancient eras so as to describe essential points. Verbs are specified and the tenses are analyzed. Studying the verbs and its etymology is the most important in terms of data collection. We have intended to study similarities and differences between verbs and its evolution since ancient era to middle-era Persian and Askani Pahlavi in the inscription of Shapur 1 Cube of Zoroaster. In this article, verbs in the inscription of Shapur 1 in Cube of Zoroaster as well as its grammar is addressed. The results show that verb in ancient Persian language through to middle Persian has experienced alterations. During these alterations, from ancient Persian to middle Persian and Askani Pahlavi, perfect present systems, past and future and initiative, wish and intensifications are all disappeared. The only system known as present tense has evolved and gained popularity.

This Article is about  Transformation’s Predictiontexts in Pahlavi language refer to works that predict future events, a future that may be end of the world, or events related to the period of a kingdom that will comein future, or even to the events after death. This article critically studies the issue of numbers and its transformation in Pahlavilanguage texts. There are references to prediction in works such as Bundahishn, Zadspramselections, Zand-i Wahman Yasn, Book of Arda Viraf,and works that Jamasp.in many cases because they work with the unit of time which is important, and it also requires a measure forevents thatit expects to predict, for example if referring to people, how many are they or, if referring to a natural occurrence, how much or how many peripheral issues are involved. Repeated numbers, such as the Saoshyant millennium, are three, four, seven, or thirty and forty. Some numbers vary in different contexts for an event, suchas periods of creation or the hardship of ending the millennium. These differences are often caused from one text to another because the authors of the texts have had to change some contentstomatch predictions or make other reasons that research at this Article.

In the course of its development, Old Persian experienced a fast, thorough arestructuring during the Achaemenid period. This development was so great that itmarked the beginning of the Middle era in Western Iranian languages. Similar to someother middle IE languages like English, Western Iranian languages are analytic languageswhich have lost a great part of their complexity in their transition from the Old typeto the Middle one. The present article tries to provide some examples regarding theprocesses of regularization, loss of redundancy, and growth in transparency, as suggestedin sociolinguistic typology (Trudgill 2010). As such, the development of Old Persianinto Middle Persian is shown to be parallel to major developments in the ancient Iraniansociety after the rise of Achaemenids.

Modal functions of the verb “residan” (to arrive) and the emergence of such modal characteristics are discussed from the perspective of grammaticalization in the present study. To achieve this goal, it was necessary to make a review on former studies on the subject of modality – more specifically, grammaticalization of modality – in Persian, followed by a description of theoretical approaches toward the concepts of modality and grammaticalization. The authors gathered data from different periods of Persian language to study the diachronic changes the verb “rasidan” has faced since the early stages of Old Persian to Middle Persian, New Persian and recent usages in Modern Persian. Analysis of data showed that in some specific contexts in New Persian, the verb “residan” was grammaticalized to represent dynamic, deserving, and permissive modality after undergoing changes such as metaphorical extension. On the other hand, in recent usages in Modern Persian, “residan” has survived, through a different path, as a means to represent dynamic modality.

The dark age period which was from the time of Gouders I to Farhad III, according to the sources, the Ashkanians are ethnically related to the Dāhe tribe, one of the Koch tribes in the Mewra Elanhar region and the southern plains of Sabiri. As a result of the pressure of the yellow-skinned peoples on other peoples of the region, the peoples of the region turned to the west. They migrated to India. Among these tribes are the Dāhe tribe. The Dāhe tribes got mixed with the yellow-skinned tribes of the region as a result of migration. This tribe is one of the Sakāī white-skinned tribes, who were influenced by their customs and beliefs due to the encounter with the migrating yellow-skinned tribes of the region. The science and symbology of this research indicates the conscious use of Greek symbols by the Ashkans, changing these symbols in the direction of establishing local traditions and using these symbols in the legitimacy of the Ashkan government. Let's look at their typology. The purpose of coin typology is with the mint and the marks of the mints and cities.

This article surveys passivization in Taleshi dialect. This dialect is common in some areas of the Guilan province. This dialect , i.e, Taleshi dialect is divided into three different branches which are called central , northern and southern dielects of Taleshi dialect . The methodology which is used in this research is of a field and library one . Because the language data are driven through a field study and the author goes into the people and selects thirty native speakers of Sehsar village. These native speakers mostly of forty years old or more than forty years old ; construing that they are not affected by the neighboring dialects which are spoken around them. The author interviews these thirty native speakers of Sehsar , who mostly reside in the village of Sehsar. He records their speech and selects the items which are applicable for fulfilling this research. It should be mentioned here that, the framework and the literature of this article take great advantages of other written works which appeared before. The dialect which is surveyed here , is of southern type which is spoken in Sehsar village. This dialect is the only means of communication among the people of this village. From linguistic perspective ,this dialect has two different case systems which are called nominative- accusative and ergative-absolutive case systems. Nominative - accusative case system is the one in which the subjects of the intransitive and transitive verbs behave similarlyand these two subjects are not differenciated by any case marker , hence the object of the transitive verb is different. In an ergative-absolutive case system , it is the reverse , that is , the subject of a transitive verb behaves differently from both the subject of intransitive verb and the object of the transitive verb. In other words , in this case system the object of a transitive verb and the subject of an intransitive verb behave similarly. This case is shown by case marker in ergative languages . In Taleshi dialect , ergative case is shown by the case marker <– i >. Regarding this two case systems , this article focuses mainly on how passivization is done in these two different case systems which are called nominative- accusative and ergative-absolutive case systems and exist in this dialect and , based on the evidence gathered in a field study , tries to answer these questions as well : Does passivization exists in this dialect which is of southern type? And how it is done in these two different case systems? Do these different case systems apply different methods of passivization , or they apply the same method of passivization ? Do passivization and ergativity coincide in the same structure? The results of this research , which are obtained after analyzing the language data gathered through a field study , show that passivization exists in this dialect and it is commonly done by omitting the agent from the sentence while the object of the verb moves to the position of the omitted subject and the verb agrees with this dummy subject. In instances of passivization , by omitting the subject ,the morpheme which means < with > follows the object which occurs in the subject position . The author believes that in this kind of passivization , the emphasis is on the object which the verb is accomplished with and as different morphemes are in action in this process of passivization, he calls this process of passivization as a complex passivization ; but in some cases the agent is kept but its position is changed and attaches the object . Although the subject is kept and comes after the object , it goes through some changes and represents a third singular or plural pronoun. That is the subject appears as or <– šun >. The choice depends on the context which they occur. These two morphemes need a past tense and perfect aspect to occur. And this context is a prerequisite for occurring the ergative case. Based on what is said , it can be concluded that this type of passivization along with ergativity requires a similar context to occur. The other point is , only in such cases passivization can coincide with ergative - absolutive construction , where the agent is present in the sentence . This finding contradicts Atlamaz ( 2012 ) that claims ergativity does not occur in a passive structure , in other words , these two structures do not coincide in a structure. Hence in cases where the agent is absent , ergative construction is absent too.

The present study dealt with the imperative mood in Persian fiction based on cognitive linguistics approach. The study aimed to explore the imperative mood at sentence and extra-sentence level. Research hypothesis was based on the distinctions between the form and meaning components of imperative mood and its distribution in various language structures. According to cognitive linguistics approach, language is a part of cognitive system and the syntactic structure of a language can't be simply studied independent of semantic and functional considerations. The text samples were derived from eight contemporary novels written by four male and four female writers through simple random sampling method. The analysis of language samples was done through descriptive and qualitative method and showed that the imperative mood could appear at various language forms and levels. According to cognitive linguistics approach, if data analysis was just done based on form at sentence level, the results will be challenging and some of data would be removed in terms of form and meaning since in some data nouns, adjectives, and adverbs alone express the meaning of imperative mood. As a result, following cognitive approach and considering all language layers we attempted to gain a better understanding of imperative mood. As such, challenges and ambiguities in determining the mood type at above-sentence level would be reduced to some extent. Extended Abstract The present paper dealt with the analysis of imperative mood based on cognitive linguistics approach. The aim of this paper was to describe and determine the criterion of understanding imperative mood in different language levels and what is beyond it. The research hypotheses were based on the distinctions between the form and meaning components in imperative mood and its distribution in the language corpus of contemporary Persian fiction. In this study, the different categories of imperative mood in Persian language were analyzed through descriptive and qualitative methods. The corpus contained text samples from eight different novel stories written by four men and four women writers. In order to limit the influence of confounding variables in language use, the corpus was selected from the same language style and context to some extent. Cognitive Linguistics subsumes that language is an integral facet of cognition which reflects the interaction of social, cultural, psycho-logical, communicative and functional considerations, and which can only be understood in the context of a realistic view of acquisition, cognitive development and mental processing. It seeks insofar as possible to explicate language structure in terms of the other facets of cognition on which it draws, as well as the communicative function it serves. Considering preliminary nature of language corpus, it seems that imperative mood could be easily observed in situational context such as different kinds of stories, but it was not as simple as it might be imagined. Because of existing distinction between form and meaning, different influential factors need to be considered from all aspects of language levels so that the results to be clear and acceptable. The studies done represent that verbal mood is divided into two general sets: indicative mood and non-indicative mood like imperative and subjunctive mood. Generally speaking, imperative mood is commonly used to express a command, order, request, suggestion, etc. In some languages like Persian, the form and meaning of imperative mood can be observed in imperative verbs, modal verbs, also some nouns, adjectives and adverbs may express imperative mood. An imperative sentence is defined as a sentence which has no surface subject (apart from some specific contexts that subject appears to convey novel meaning which might be studied), and either a main verb or emphatic do in the base form. In most languages, it usually appears without any modal verbs. Crystal (2004:227) remarks that an imperative usage refers to verb forms or sentence, clause types typically used in the expression of command, e.g. Go away. Formally, imperative clauses, as Bibber et al. (1999, p. 219) comment, are characterized by the lack of a subject, the use of the base form of the verb, and the absence of modals as well as tense and aspect markers as in: Get off the table. Don't forget about the deposit. According to the existing researches done, imperative mood is formally distinguishable from other sentence types of the language in which they appear: i.e., they have distinctive morphology, syntax and main verb. In general, the grammatical status of imperative sentences is puzzling, syntactically and semantically.  Imperative verbs have little or no inflectional morphology in data observed; that is why, it is very challengeable issue although data analysis from cognitive view show that the base of the verb in the form of imperative structure has a high frequency The analysis of language samples in this study indicated that recognizing imperative mood does not just rely on considering the command of doing an action and the request of something based on modal verbs and verbal mood. Data analysis showed that even some nouns, adjectives and adverbs might do this function; therefore, the other aspects of language in higher language levels should be paid attention so as to be understand the distinction of imperative mood from indicative and subjunctive better. According to cognitive linguistics approach which is the theoretical framework of this study, language is a part of cognitive system and the syntactic structure of a language can't be separately studied, but all influential factors could be considered from different language aspects. The results showed that the base of the verb had a high frequency in the corpus, but the form and meaning may show the other kinds of mood, thus recognizing imperative mood depends on different language constituents in context. As a result, all language layers, forms and meanings should be taken into account and analyzed cognitively in describing and explaining of imperative mood.

Grammaticalization is a process through which a lexical item changes into a grammatical morpheme. Semantic changes of a free morpheme along with the categorical and phonological changes result in structural function in the syntax of a language, and the former lexical items are used to express abstract grammatical concepts such as tense, aspect, and mood. In all languages, body part words as a part of lexical sources are very frequent, and have a vast semantic network. The role of these free lexical items in the process of grammaticalization has been documented by various researchers, and it has been shown that some of the body part words have been changed into adposition by moving through the continuum of grammaticalization and after a change in their core meaning. This research tries to investigate the body part word "face" and the pattern of changes in this free lexical item in Persian language system within the framework of the grammaticalization process. To do so, the different simple, derived and derived compound forms of "face" in Anvari Allegory Dictionary(1383) and FarsNet have been studied to answer the following questions: 1)what is the continuum of the changes in body part word "face" in the process of grammaticalization, and 2) what are the semantic, morphosyntactic, and categorical outcomes of grammaticalization of this word? The results show that this word has undergone the grammaticalization process like other body part words and even progressed more. This word not only refers to "face" (core meaning), it has also undergone semantic generalization and hierarchical pejoration, and participated in new structures and functions. The ending point of changes of this face is its function as compound subordinate conjunction in conditional forms and contrastive expressions. This word has gone so beyond its core meaning as subordinate conjunction that no sign of the former core meaning as body part word "face" is available.

The goal of this study was to compare language development in dyslexic and normal children. This study was descriptive and employed causal-comparative ex post facto design. Participants were 60 first to third grade elementary students: 30 with developmental dyslexia and 30 normal students. These students were selected by availability sampling and by using Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) and Reading and Dyslexia (NAMA). At the end, the development of spoken language was measured via Test of Language Development (TOLD-P: 3). In order to analyze data, Mann-Whitney Test and Kruskal Wallis Test were used. Findings obtained from this research showed that there was a significant difference between mean of scores of dyslexic and normal children in linguistic areas which included: semantic or lexical areas (picture vocabulary, relational vocabulary, and oral vocabulary) and syntactic areas (grammatical comprehension, sentence imitation, and grammatical completion). That is, the mean of scores of normal children was higher than dyslexic group. Therefore, according to obtained findings from this survey, it can be concluded that dyslexic children compared to normal subjects had weaker linguistic abilities in semantics, syntax, and spoken language. Furthermore, there was a significant difference between mean of scores of dyslexic and normal children in Spoken language areas in grades 1-3 and third graders had better language performance compared to first and second graders in both groups. Therefore, it is suggested that along with other therapeutic interventions, teaching of linguistic areas be included in the treatment program for children with dyslexia. Extended Abstract:Dyslexia is a severe type of learning disability that affects some children, adolescents and adults (Lyon B, 1995). Weber (1985), in the Culture of psychology, refers to dyslexia as any kind of reading disability in which the children lag behind their class in the field of reading. There is no objective evidence that indicates deficiencies such as mental retardation, major brain damage or emotional and cultural problems as well as speech. Almost 80% of students with learning disabilities have difficulties in reading (Mays and Calhoun, 2006).
Today many studies show that children with learning disabilities have less skills in phonological, semantic, syntactic and communicational skills than their peers. In addition, attempts to describe subgroups of children with learning disabilities prove that the largest subgroup is children with linguistic weaknesses that almost form half of the population of children with learning disabilities (Brian et al. , 1991, p. 119). The prevalence of spoken language disorders among students with learning disabilities shows that these disorders are one of the most common problems of these students, but these problems have not been much considered (Halahan et al, 2011؛ quoted in Alizadeh et al. , 1390, p. 442).
One of the issues that has attracted the attention of researchers in recent years is the relationship between the development and evolution of language and its fundamental role in reading skills.
Linguistic disorders affect not only the individual's ability to communicate in everyday life, but also prevent the learning of skills such as reading and writing, as well as have a negative effect on performance in other areas such as participation in social interactions and learning foreign language (Halahan et al. , 2011؛ quoted in Alizadeh et al. , 1390, p. 440) so, as for the importance and role of language in learning of reading skills, in this research, we sought to answer the general question of what is the difference between linguistic development of dyslexic children and normal children in the first to third grades of elementary schools. It should be noted that because spoken language is a very complex category (Halahan et al. , 2011, quoted in Alizadeh et al. , 1390, p. 439), in this study, only two aspects of the spoken language that are considered in Test of Language Development (TOLD-P: 3) (1998) have been studied. Therefore, the purpose of the development of spoken language in this research is the skills that include the semantic domains (picture vocabulary, relational vocabulary, and oral vocabulary) and syntax (grammatical comprehension, sentence imitation, and grammatical completion).
It should be noted that the present study was conducted within the framework of psychology of language and examined the relationship between language and reading. In addition, the purpose of the growth of language in this article is the development of spoken language; therefore, the research hypotheses are:The first hypothesis: dyslexic children have a weaker performance than their normal counterparts in the growth of semantic / lexical domains (picture vocabulary, relational vocabulary, and oral vocabulary), and their difference in performance is statistically significant.
The Second hypothesis: The performance of dyslexic children in the development of syntactic domains (grammatical comprehension, sentence imitation, and grammatical completion) is weaker than their normal counterparts, so that there is a significant difference between their performance.
The third hypothesis: There is a significant difference between the development of spoken language (semantic and syntactic skills) in dyslexic children and normal children, and dyslexic children have a weaker performance than their normal children.
The fourth hypothesis: With increasing educational level, the growth of speech language of children in both dyslexic and normal groups is significantly increased.
The fifth hypothesis: There is a significant difference between the growth of spoken language domains ​​of dyslexic children and the normal first to third grade elementary students.
This study was descriptive and causal-comparative (ex post facto). participants were 60 students: 30 students with developmental dyslexia and 30 normal students of grades 1- 3 in elementary schools of Kerman city. These students were selected by non-random sampling and by using Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) and Reading and Dyslexia (NAMA) Test. At the end, the growth of spoken language between two groups were measured via Test of Language Development (TOLD-P: 3).
The data that were analyzed in this study included scores that normal and dyslexic students in the first to third grade of elementary students received in Test of Language Development. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics includes the calculation of mean and standard deviations. The hypothesis tests was performed by using Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis statistical tests with a significance level of 0. 05 and With the help of the SPSS software.
Findings obtained from this research showed that there is a significant relationship between mean of scores of dyslexic and normal children in linguistic areas which include: semantic or lexical areas (picture vocabulary, relational vocabulary, and oral vocabulary) and syntactic areas (grammatical comprehension, sentence imitation, and grammatical completion). The mean of scores of normal children was higher than dyslexic groups. Therefore, according to obtained findings from this survey, it can be concluded that dyslexic children compared to normal subjects have a weaker performance both in the whole test and in each subtests in semantics, syntax and spoken language. Furthermore, there is a significant difference between mean of scores of dyslexic and normal children in Spoken language areas in 1-3 grades. Children in third grade had better language performance compared to first and second graders in both groups. Therefore, it is suggested that teaching linguistic areas, along with other therapeutic interventions, be included in the treatment program for children with dyslexia

The present study deals with imperative mood in Persian language based on prototype theory which is one of sub-theories of the cognitive linguistics approach. The research hypotheses are based on distinctions between the form and meaning components in the imperative mood and its distribution in the language corpus of contemporary literature. The aim of this paper is to describe and classify the criterion of the imperative mood in different language levels and beyond.
According to the cognitive linguistics approach, language is part of a cognitive system and the syntactic structure of a language cant be studied separately, but all influential factors should be considered from different lingual aspects. The data analysis was carried out through descriptive and qualitative methods. It was found that the base of the verb has a high frequency in the corpus, but the form and meaning are different, with the meaning of imperative mood depending on the context. As a result, all language layers, forms and meanings in description and classification of the imperative mood should be taken into account to be analyzed cognitively.