فهرست مطالب nematollah etemadi

Leaf chlorosis and early leaf loss disturb the growth of plane trees in the urban landscape of Iranian cities. The present experiment was conducted to study the effect of trunk injection using the low-pressure Fertinyect endotherapy system with iron sources and seaweed extract for reducing leaf chlorosis of plane trees compared to soil application of iron sequestrone in the randomized complete block design with 3 replications. The experimental treatments included the injection of iron amino chelate, iron gluconate, iron citrate, and iron sulfate in combination with seaweed extract compared to the soil application of iron sequestrone and the control. Chlorophyll content, leaf iron, Fv/Fm ratio, leaf relative water content, stomatal carbon dioxide, photosynthesis, transpiration rate, water use efficiency and tree visual quality were evaluated. The iron amino chelate 4% + seaweed extract 2% and iron gluconate 4% + seaweed extract 2% compared to other treatments led to the most significant increase in leaf chlorophyll, iron content, leaf relative water content, Fv/Fm ratio, tree visual quality, and the improvement of the photosynthetic parameters. In general, trunk injection with iron in combination with seaweed extract was beneficial due to the effect of iron on chlorophyll synthesis, and growth stimulation by seaweed extract.

Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea (Schreb.) is a more desirable turfgrass in the transition zone due to its drought avoidance as well as tolerance to shade, salinity, and warm temperatures stresses. The present research was conducted to evaluate the different aspects of turfgrass quality in tall fescue in response to different levels of mowing height. A factorial experiment (12 genotypes × 3 mowing heights) was schemed based on a completely randomized design with three replications. After establishment, tall fescues genotypes were subjected to different heights of mowing as follows: 2.0, 4.0, and 6.0 cm. The results showed that there was a significant variation in terms of the turf characteristics between the genotypes of tall fescue. Among that, 75B resulted in the best quality and performance against mowing shock. Increasing mowing height increased turf quality, turf color, and turf cover, as well as turf softness, in all the tall fescue genotypes. Regardless of the genotype, the data support the general mowing height recommendation for tall fescue of 4.0 to 6.0 cm. Overall, based on the results of this study, 75B (a native genotype) was selected as a superior genotype for its turf quality and tolerance to low moving heights, and can be used as turfgrass in landscapes.

Application of regulators in production of pot plants have been increasing due to lowering growth, improving branching and the number of flowering branches. In order to study the effect of levels and application method of trinexapac-ethyl regulator on height control and morphophysiological characteristics and flowering of Zinnia elegans, a factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications was performed. Zinnias seedlings were planted in polyethylene pots and subjected to trinexapac-ethyl with levels of zero, 2×10-3, 1×10-3, 0.5×10-3 and 4.5×10-4 g when the first bud emerged. Trinexapac-ethyl was applied in both foliar spray and soil application. According to the results, 1×10-3 and 2×10-3g trinexapac-ethyl caused significant reduction in plant height. As trinexapac-ethyl level increased, number of branches and flowers were increased accordingly most of which was under the latter treatment. Branch length and leaf number was not affected. The concentrations 1×10-3 and 2×10-3g increased chlorophyll and shoots sugars, but not on root. Similarly, soil application of Trinexapac-ethyl did not showed positive effects. In light of obtained results, foliar spray application of Trinexapac-ethyl may serve as a suitable way to produce dwarf and pot Zinnia elegans  ‘State fair mix’. Based on the obtained results, application of Trinexapac-ethyl as foliar application can control and reduce the height of the Zinnia elegans ‘State fair mix’.

Gamma radiation is being used to induce mutation in diverse plant species. The present study investigated the growth and physiological responses of two tall fescue genotypes, 75C (native genotype) and Pacer (foreign genotype) to gamma radiation, as well as determination of the proper dose of gamma radiation for the mutation breeding program of this species. Seeds of two genotypes of tall fescue were subjected to different doses, including 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 Gray (Gy) of gamma ray from a 60Co (Cobalt-60) source. Irradiated and non-irradiated seeds were sown in pots and grown under controlled conditions in the greenhouse. Growth and physiological aspects associated with plant tolerance to oxidative stress were examined. The results revealed that the low dose (50 Gy) of gamma radiation stimulated seedling growth of both genotypes. However, high doses (100-400 Gy) significantly reduced seedling survival and plant height, and enhanced days to seedling emergence. Further, high doses of radiation reduced activities of antioxidant enzymes (especially catalase and superoxide dismutase), and increased the contents of proline and malondialdehyde (MDA) in the seedlings of both genotype as compared with non-iradiated plants. Biplot analysis indicated that positive correlations were found between the growth and survival of plant with antioxidant enzyme activities and negative correlations were obsereved between the plant growth and proline plus MDA contents. The native genotype (75C) was more sensitive to gamma-ray than Pacer genotype. According to the probit analysis, the 50% lethal dose (LD50) for 75C and Pacer genotypes were 212 and 223 Gy of gamma radiation, respectively. Based on the results of the present study, gamma rays stress negatively affected survival, morphological traits, and antioxidant enzymes activities in tall fescue and dosages ranging from 200 to 250 Gy is recommended as the appropriate dose of irradiation for mutation breeding programs in tall fescue.

In order to study the morphology and biochemistry characteristics of endemic accessions “Hamedan”, “prickly”, “Varamin broadleaf” and “advanced prickly”, an experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications in spring conditions of Isfahan, 2018, and the best accessions were examined in terms of quality, functionality and nutritional traits. The results showed that except "Hamedan" accession, all of shape and form of plant accession are suitable for mechanical harvesting. The highest yield belonged to “Varamin broadleaf” (52.6 kg/ha) and then “prickly” accessions (30.8 kg/ha), had the highest performance. The study did not show significant differences in chlorophyll, carotenoid, phenol, protein, nitrate, nitro reductase, and potassium. The “Varamin broadleaf” accession had a significant advantage in antioxidant and fiber compounds. The “advanced prickly” accession was more desirable than others in vitamins and minerals. Oxalic acid, which is considered a negative point for nutrition, was the highest in the “Hamedan” and the lowest in the “prickly” and “Varamin broadleaf” accessions. So, “Hamedan” accession was not given priority due to its lower nutritional value, biochemical and morphological traits. In general, the accessions of “Varamin broadleaf”, “advanced prickly” and “prickly” due to desirable morphological characteristics such as plant height, fresh and dry weigh, yield and biochemical componds such as antioxidant, phenolic, vitamin, fiber and mineral are recommended. According to results of qualitative and PCA analysis characteristics “Varamin broadleaf” and “advanced prickly” are generally superior to others and can be used in breeding and farming future.

Correct pruning is one of the most important factors in growing plants particularly trees and shrubs, in the landscape. The present study was conducted to assess the effects of pruning intensity and nitrogenous fertilizer on physiological and morphological characteristics and wilting percentage in rosemary plant. A factorial experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design with five levels of pruning (no pruning, half of current –year branch prune, complete pruning of current-year branch, half one-year-old branch prune and complete pruning one-year old branch) and two levels of nitrogenous fertilizer (0 and 200 kg.ha-1) with three replications. For this purpose used 18-month-old rosemary cuttings grown in the greenhouse. Stem growth was measured during six months. Number of lateral branches, root and shoot fresh and dry weights, root volume and length, chlorophyll fluorescence, relative water content (RWC), ion leakage (EL) and proline were evaluated. The growth of rosemary plants was reduced with increased pruning intensity and fresh and dry weight of shoot and number of lateral shoots  were increased with useing nitrogenous fertilizer.With increased pruning intensity, RWC, ion leakage percentage and proline content were increased and chlorophyll fluorescence decreased. RWC and proline were increased with the application of nitrogenous fertilizer. The highest wilting percentage (77.77%) of plants was observed in complete pruning of one-year old branch with nitrogen fertilizer.

The wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum L.), is a plant with potential source of turf in arid and semi-arid regions. It can be also cultivated in order to prevent the soil erosion by coverage of earth's surface. Drought stress is one of the most important factors that influence growth and productivity of plants in arid and semi-arid condition. In order to evaluate the effect of trinexapac ethyl concentrations (0, 0.25 and 0.5 kg/h) and drought stress (25, 50 and 75% of field capacity) treatments on some wheatgrass morphological traits, a pot experiment was conducted as factorial in completely randomized block designs with four replications in research greenhouses of Islamic Azad University, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch during 2015. The results showed that the maximum plant height and the lowest amount of proline obtained in 75% drought stress treatment. The lowest fresh weight of the aerial parts and the relative water content (RWC) were observed in 25% drought stress treatment. The highest dry weight of the shoots was measured in control, 0.25 kg/h trinexapac-ethyl and 75% drought stress treatments. The highest proline content and the lowest height of the plants were observed in 25% drought treatment with 0.5 kg/h oftrinexapac-ethyl. In general, the research results indicated that under drought stress condition, application of trinexapac-ethyl by increasing the amount of proline and relative water content reduced stress damage and increased resistance to drought stress in the wheatgrass.
 

Drought and salinity are the most detrimental abiotic stresses for turfgrass growth across a wide range of geographic locations. Most cool season grass species are not well adapted to extended periods of drought and salinity stress. The decline in turf quality caused by drought and salinity stresses is a major concern in turfgrass cultivation and management. Therefore, developing management practices for improving drought and salinity resistance of turfgrasses has become imperative in arid and semiarid regions. Grass genotypes differ in their responses to drought and salinity stresses, which involve changes in morphological and physiological aspects. Understanding of relative involvement of each morphological and physiological characteristic in drought and salinity tolerance is important in selecting grass genotypes to facilitate breeding of drought and salinity-tolerant genotypes. The purposes of this research were to make selections of genotypes tolerant to drought and salinity stress for turfgrass management program.

To study some morphological and physiological responses of six Iranian crested wheatgrasses (Agropyron cristatum L.) under drought and salinity, an experiment was conducted in the greenhouse of College of Abureyhan, University of Tehran, Iran. Six Iranian Agropyron cristatum genotypes were collected from six locations in Iran. Agropyron cristatum genotypes were planted in polyvinyl chloride tubes and kept in the greenhouse. Pots were filled with sandy loam soil which had been sterilized in an oven at 160ºC for 6 h. Irrigation was applied as needed to prevent any visible stress during grass establishment. Grasses were watered three times weekly to maintain plants under well-watered conditions and soil moisture at field capacity. The experiment consisted of three treatments: 1) well-watered plants were irrigated three times per week with distilled water (control), 2) Drought stress was imposed by withholding irrigation for 45 days (drought stress), and 3) plants were irrigated daily with 100 mL of 9 dS.m–1 NaCl solution (salinity stress). To avoid primary salinity shock, the soil in each pot was drenched with 100 mL NaCl solution at incremental electrical conductivity (EC) by 3 dS.m–1 per day until the final EC reached 9 dS.m–1. Data were subjected to analysis based on a split-plot design with water treatments as main-plots and genotypes as sub-plots. Irrigation treatment as the main factor in three levels (control, drought, and salinity) and crested wheatgrass at six levels were considered as sub-plots. Studied characteristics such as height, turf quality, chlorophyll content, soluble carbohydrates, relative water content, electrolyte leakage, root penetration, and effective root depth were recorded. Statistical significance was tested using the analysis of variance procedure in SAS 9.1 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Differences between the means were determined using the Fisher’s protected LSD test at the 5% probability level.

The results of this study showed that drought and salinity stress decreased the quality of crested wheatgrass masses, and reduced the level of quality varied among the masses. Throughout the experiment, ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Damavand’ under drought conditions and ‘Sabzevar’, ‘Arak’ and ‘Damavand’ under salinity conditions maintained higher Turf quality compared with other genotypes. Total chlorophyll content of ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Damavand’ were higher than other genotypes under drought and salinity conditions. The maintenance of higher chlorophyll content has been associated with better drought and salinity tolerance in plant. The soluble sugar content of ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Damavand’ under drought conditions and ‘Sabzevar’, ‘Arak’ and ‘Damavand’ under salinity conditions were higher than other genotypes during the experiment. Soluble sugar content is an important compatible osmolyte in plants. Increased accumulation of soluble sugar content in stressed plants may be an adaptation process and resistance strategy to abiotic stresses in plants. Throughout the experiment, ‘AEKQI’, ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Damavand’ genotypes under drought conditions and ‘Sabzevar’ genotypes under salinity conditions maintained higher relative water content in compared with other genotypes. Higher RWC indicates the ability of the leaf to maintain its higher water content under stress conditions with the simultaneous capability of the root system to take up adequate water. Based on morphological and physiological analysis for drought and salinity tolerance in investigated genotypes, the tolerance ranking would appear to be ‘Sabzevar’ > ‘Damavand’ > ‘Arak’ > ‘Urmia’ = Takestan > ‘Hashtgerd’ under drought stress and ‘Sabzevar’> ‘Arak’ > ‘Damavand’ > ‘Takestan’ = ‘Hashtgerd’> ‘Urmia’ under salinity stress. The results of this study showed that ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Damavand’ genotypes had good tolerance to drought stress, and ‘Sabzevar’ and ‘Arak’ genotypes had good tolerance to salt stress than other Iranian crested wheatgrass genotypes.

Trees in the landscape always lost their vitality for various reasons, and decline or dieback are experiencing. One of the factors that can affect the decline of trees can be pointed to drought stress. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi (Rhizophagus intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae inoculated, and the combination of both species) and growth promoting bacteria; Pseudomonas Flourescens on growth responses of Cupressus arizonica in experiencing stress induced by a deficit of water as a factorial experiment based on completely randomized design, with 3 replications. In this study, the Interactions between fungi, bacteria and deficit irrigation on the concentration of phosphorus and iron, ion leakage, proline content and shoot dry weigh were significant. Under deficit irrigation most of the treatments such as colonization rate (by 39%), phosphorus (by 33%), potassium (by 16%) and iron (by 25%) cocentration, relative water content (by 25%), chlorophyll content (by 76%), height (by 29%), shoot dry weight (by 41%) and the Cupressus vitality (by 35%)  decreased; on the contrary, the percentage of electrolyt leakage (by 36%) and proline content (by 122%) increased. Morever, inoculation with mycorrhizal fungus increased the concentration of phosphorus and iron, relative water content, chlorophyll content, height, shoot dry weight and However reduced ion leakage and proline content and lead to improvement of plants growth and vitality. The presence of Pseudomonas alone did not have a significant role in improving the growth of plants under water stress conditions, but its interaction with mycorrhizal fungus showed positive effects. In general the results of this experiment showed that inoculation of cupressus plant with mycorrhizal fungus with the use of P. florescent bacteria can have a positive effect on the survival of this plant under water stress conditions.

In recent years application of plant growth regulators especially growth retardants, has been significantly increased. Trizols (paclobutrzol and trinexapac-ethyl) as the most effective and least harmful growth retardants, induce more dwarf and denser cover plants with both darker and thicker leaves. Therefore, an experiment based on completely randomized block design with 16 treatments and 3 replicates, was conducted to investigate the effect of paclobutrzol and trinexapac-ethyl application on morphological and physiological characteristics of rosemari and thuja “Morgan” as two hedge plants. Immediately after pruning, foliar spray was applied on each plant with 1000 and 4000 mg/l of paclobutrzol or 1000 mg/l of trinexapac-ethyl. Distilled water was used as control. Measured traits were included plant height and width, wet and dry weight of pruned parts, internode elongation, proline content, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll content. Results indicated that growth retardants decreased plant height and width, wet and dry weight of pruned parts and internode elongation, while they increased proline content, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll content as compared to the control plants.

A few information about the combined effects of different environmental stress on turfgrass physiology and growth is available. Also, a separate study of environmental factors on plant cannot be a suitable model for natural conditions. This study was conducted to investigate the interactive effects of different levels of shade (0, 50, and 70%) and water treatments (well-watered and non-irrigated) on visual quality and root characteristics of wheatgrass (Agropyron deserturum L.) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb. ‘Forager’) in a factorial arrangement based on a completely randomized design. Under different levels of shade (50 and 70%), the negative effects of drought stress on the rate of dehydration, visual quality, ion leakage and the mortality rate of surface and deep roots was reduced. According to the ornamental performance, tall fescue had better performance than the wheatgrass under drought stress conditions and full sunlight, but wheatgrass was more successful than tall fescue under drought stress and 70% shade level. Under moderate shade (50%) and drought stress, tall fescue spent more time to dehydrate than wheatgrass. It can be concluded that in water stress conditions, shading could be useful to cope with drought stress, which needs to be further investigated.

In recent decade, establish and maintenance of turf grasses is faced with serious doubts due to reduction of precipitation and water resources. So, identification of drought-resistant native and rangeland species, and introducing them as turf grass not only is effective in reducing water consumption, but also help to preserve the genetic resources of the country. In order to evaluate the usability of native grasses of Iran as drought resistance grass, Wheat grass and Bromus were compared with Perennial ryegrass (Control). In this experiment, drought stress treatments were applied with irrigation withholding, and continued until the entire shrivel of all species shoots. During the stress period, shoot growth, leaf color, relative water content, prolin content, leaf width, shrivel percentage, root penetration, root fresh and dry weight, effective depth of root density and shoot fresh and dry weight were measured. The results of this research showed that reduction of shoot growth in Bromus occur sooner than two other species. The decline of relative water content and changes of leaf width were lesser in Wheat grass than two other species. Increasing of shrivel percentage in Wheat grass was done with more delayed than two other species. Prolin content in Perennial ryegrass was the most and in Bromus was the least. The measurements related to root and shoot traits was the least in Bromus and the most in Wheat grass. Moreover, the recovery in Wheat grass was done completely and faster. In aggregate, Wheat grass could be introduced as a drought resistance grass instead of Perennial ryegrass.

Application of growth reterdants such as trinexapac-ethyl has become popular in turf grass management. The principle goal to apply these substances is to reduce lawn vertical growth, prevent inflorescence development and increasing biotic and abiotic tolerance. The aim of the present research wasto investigatethe effect of different trinexapac-ethyl levels (0, 0.25 and 0.5 Kg/h) and traffic stress on morphological and physiological traits of tall fescue cultivar Rebel. Experiment was carried out as a factorial based on completely randomized design in three replicates. Results showed that trinexapac-ethyl and traffic significantly decreased height, dry and fresh weight. Growth reduction in 0.25 and 0.5 Kg/h of trinexapac-ethyl was about 18.84 and 22.06%, respectively. Trinexapac-ethyl application led to increase density, tillering and chlorophyll, amount while traffic treatment reduced relative chlorophyll amount, density and tillering, significantly. Its application at concentration of 0.5 Kg/h increased tillering about 36% and traffic stress reduced it about 17.2%. Results also indicated that, trinexapac-ethyl and traffic treatment increased shoots soluble carbohydrates, significantly, whereas this substance did not affect root soluble carbohydrates in comparison to traffic. Trinexapac-ethyl increased tall fescue traffic stress resistance by increasing relative water content and decreasing electrolyte leakage in traffic stress conditions.

Study of the roles and functions of botanic gardens since their advent up to now، represents that botanic gardens have had their functional flexibility according the needs in their temporal and spatial context. So it can be used، the botanic garden''s capabilities to answer the needs and challenges such as reduction of green and recreational spaces in cities and loss of biodiversity that have established because of growth in urbanization in the world، and affected local and regional environment qualities directly. Hence the purpose of this paper is redefining the roles and functions of botanic gardens for conservation and education in contemporary cities. To gain this، at first، the process of functional evolution of botanic gardens will be described، by botanic garden''s literature review، and by using descriptive and analytical method، and then the relation between function of botanic gardens and socio-economic and cultural factors -that have create them during the four eras-، will be analyzed. After that، new roles of botanic gardens will be redefined according to model of human-environmental interaction in the landscape -presented by Gobster and associates (2007) - and according to the last agenda، presented for plants conservation. Paper results represents that to achieve integrated conservation، the conservation and education roles of botanic gardens should not be separated. Also with respect to public perception of botanic gardens as places for recreation، relaxation، enjoying natural beauties، spending time with family and by considering botanical gardens as urban spaces، we can use recreational activities of botanic gardens to answer conservational and educational goals and to establish integrated conservation. At the end planning and design strategies that demonstrates botanic garden''s aims in conservation، education and recreation، will be proposed.

Petroleum hydrocarbons as organic contaminants are among the materials that pollute the soil. These compounds and the resutant stress to plants limit selection of suitable species to be planted in hydrocarbon contaminated sites. The aim of this research was to determine the effects of petroleum compounds on germination and morphophysiological characteristics of wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum). This research was carried out in a randomized complete block for germination experiment and split-plot design in time in randomized complete block for the second part of the experiment in three replications. Results of the first experiment showed that germination percentage، germination rate، mean day of germination and germination energy of wheatgrass had no significant differences between the control and 20% sludge treatment. The lowest germination percentage was observed in 80% sludge. In the second experiment (growth phase) higher growth rate was observed in 20% sludge، and no significant differences were observed in density، color، chlorophyll، proline and relative water content of these two treatments. The results showed that by increasing the level of sludge to 40% and 80%، density، color، growth and chlorophyll content increased but proline content decreased significantly. The difference between 40% and 80% sludge treatments was significant too. In conclusion، native species wheatgrass can germinate in low levels of petroleum contaminants in soil.

In this study، the effect of drought stress on morphological and physiological characteristics of wheatgrass and tall fescue was investigated in a factorial-split plot in time arrangement based on a completely randomized design with three replications. After turf establishment، half pots were exposed to drought stress and the half other were completely irrigated. Based on the results tall fescue had higher color and lower percent leaf firing during first 10 days of drought stress، but after this period، the percent leaf firing in tall fescue increased، so that it had higher percent leaf firing and lower color than wheatgrass in the end of experiment. The results showed that under drought stress conditions was not observed the significant difference between two species in leaf relative water content. In wheatgrass، proline content of stressed plants was equal to control plants during first 10 days of drought stress but with prolonged stress treatment، the proline content increased significantly. Despite wheatgrass which had moderate rate for closed stomata percentage during stress period، tall fescue showed a great increased in this index and reached to 89. 52% at the end of 20th day. Also in drought stress، the stomata density increased and stomata diameter decreased significantly. Therefore، based on the results in long drought stress، wheatgrass had higher drought resistance than tall fescue.

In order toa desirable growth، plants need fertile soil which has the availability of nutrient elements in it. Sometimes، in spite of having access to the nutrient elements، decrease yield، due to undesirable physical situation. Stock (Matthiolaincana cv. Column Crimson) is one of the potting flower that its growth medium traditionally including HAWAR soil، basin sediment and untreated waste municipal. Due to decrease reach to mentioned soils، so that، it is necessary to replace a growth medium and surveying the effect of different organic matter in pot stock. Garden soil was used as main source of medium and as control. In this study، treatments including garden soil amendment by 4 and 8 % (w/w) of different organic matter (untreated waste municipal، beet pulp، leaf mold، and municipal compost). Another treatment was traditional growth medium. This research was performed in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Result showed that manure treatments on plant height، floret diameter، carbohydrate content had significant different (p).

Nowadays, establishment and maintenance of turfgrasses due to high water requirements was faced with serious doubts. Hence, screening of drought resistance native grasses, and introduces them as turfgrass is not only effective in reduction of water usage but can also preserve plant gene pools of the country. In the present experiment, Wheat grass and Bromus as two native grasses were compared with perennial ryegrass as control. After establishment and coverage of the pots surfaces by turfgrass in outdoor, three mowing heights including 2, 4 and 6 cm were applied on the species weekly. During the experiment, shoot growth, tillering, leaf color and leaf width, fresh and dry weight were measured weekly. The results of this research showed that Bromus due to undesirable tissue (leaf width more than 3 mm) and low density is not suitable for use in landscape. Wheat grass despite of rougher texture and less color than perennial ryegrass, has higher tillering, suitable color (7.59) and good texture (leaf width about 2 mm). Also, mowing height of 2 cm was determined as the best for three species studied.

The lack of light and shadow created by the development of human artificial and shade of the trees in landscapes are the one of the main challenge facing the lawn as one of the main components of urban landscapes. In this study، the effects of different shade levels (0، 50، 70 and 90%) on the appearance and morphological characteristics of wheatgrass (Agropyron deserturumL.) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinaceae Schreb. ‘Forager’) in a completely randomized design with three replications were examined. The results of this experiment showed that، in full sunlight، the wheatgrass had higher color degree، texture، tillering، shoot and root dry weight، root to shoot weight ratio and stomatal conductance in relation to other levels of irradiances. Therefore، wheatgrass showed higher efficiency in full sunlight than other levels of shade. Tall fescue exhibited higher efficiency at 50% shade level than full sunlight because of higher color degree، tillering، root to shoot weight ratio and photosynthesis. Based on the optimal properties for ornamental applications in landscape، Tall fescue had the better performance than wheatgrass under all levels of irradiances. However، both species did not tolerate 90% (dense) shade level.

Because of water and soil salinity، there are many problems for turfgrass in Iran. use of salt tolerant native plants is one of the appropriate way for solving these problems. This study was undertaken to evaluate effect of four levels of salinity (less than2، 4، 8 and 16 ds/m) on morphological and physiological characteristics in naitive grass، Wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum). The experiment was performed based on randomized complete block design with three replications. The results showed that salinity stress decreased turfgrass qualiy (TQ)، fresh and dry weight of shoots and roots، relative water content (RWC) and root and shoot potassium contents. Also، salinity stress increased shoot and root sodium contents، electrolyte leakage (EL)، proline contents and activity of enzymes. According to reduction in TQ and RWC and increase in EL under salinity stress، it seems that increasing in proline contents and enzymes activities could not be able to reduce the damage caused by stress. All of the measured parameters in this study showed the significant differences with control plant in 4 ds/m salinity level. The results showed the wheatgrass is salt-sensitive and salt tolerance it was less than 4 (ds/m).

Turf is one of the most important ground covers and it is one of the main elements of urban landscape design. Plant growth regulators، such as growth inhibitors، are widely used in turfgrass management to suppress shoot growth and inflorescences production. This experiment was conducted to determine the interactive effects of trinexapac-ethyl (TE) and salinity on the growth، visual quality، and chemical constituents of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). Plants were grown hydroponically under four levels of salinity (1. 5 (control)، 2. 5، 5. 0 and 7. 5 dS/m) and three levels of trinexapac-ethyl (0، 0. 02، and 0. 04 g/m2). The results showed that growth rate of perennial ryegrass decreased significantly with both trinexapac-ethyl and salinity treatments، although the differences in growth rate were not significant between trinexapac-ethyl treatments at 0. 02 and 0. 04 g a. i. /m2 application rates. Root penetration depth، fresh and dry weights increased by trinexapac-ethyl، while salinity decreased them. The results showed that total chlorophyll، chlorophyll a، chlorophyll b، and proline concentrations increased by application of trinexapac-ethyl، while TE had no significant effect on the carotenoid content. Salinity treatment decreased total chlorophyll، chlorophyll a، chlorophyll b، and carotenoid content، but increased proline concentration. Overall، it can be suggested that for improving the tolerance of perennial ryegrass to salinity up to 2. 5 dS/m and reduced mowing frequency، the turf should be sprayed monthly with TE at 0. 02 g/m2.

One of the most important fields to create a suitable environment for the residents of the cities is the development of urban green space. Thus the management of urban green space and use all of its potential is an important point for planner in urban environmental management. In this study, focused on the citizen attitudes and the use patterns of yards green space in urban residential in Isfahan city. The research was conducted in the form of survey study. Classified random sampling was selected because in the past studied had divided the Isfahan city green space in to three categories: High, medium and low level. The data for this research was collected from 230 citizen ship in Isfahan city. The Validity of questionnaire was determined by using expert opinion and the reliability of questionnaire was determined by calculating the Cronbach's Alpha coefficient (0.76) after conducting a pilot study. Analysis of the survey results showed that the average size of residential courtyard between 50 to 100 m2. Also green space consisted of half of the residential courtyard. These results showed that the development of the courtyard green space of urban residential could be help to improve the green space in the urban environment management. The result of this study showed that the average use of the courtyard green space was less than 2 hours a day.In the viewpoint of Isfahan citizen's the priorities of the use of courtyard green space was to satisfy the spiritual - psychological needs (87.7%).Also the most users prefer to use the tree of green space element (34.3%).Also in the viewpoint of Isfahan citizens willing to make changes in the design of courtyard green space was the high, therefore the 73% of respondent confirmed the need of create changes of the design in your courtyard green space.