فهرست مطالب roya motamed nejad

Since the past, innovations have dramatically changed people's quality of life and played an important role in all aspects of humans' lives. The internet, social media, and e-books are well-known examples of current worldwide innovative breakthroughs. Despite innovations' advantages, they can lead to some negative consequences or harmful effects such as online fraud, copyright infringements and privacy violations which need to be regulated by law. In fact, the law seeks to regulate innovations in a way that protects users' rights while reducing risks. Every country have passed numerous laws to regulate the online sphere and the European Union is a legislative body which has created various laws on different topics in its European member states.“The European Union” was established after the Second World War in the European region according to “the treaty of Maastricht”. Human dignity, freedom, equality, human rights, and the rule of law are the values of the European Union (The EU). Generally, the EU has four main institutions with important responsibilities. “The European commission” offers new laws and “The Parliament” and “The European Council” enact them in forms of directives and regulations. Additionally, the Commission monitors member states to ensure that rules are implemented correctly. The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) interprets EU laws to ensure that they are applied uniformly in all EU countries, and resolves legal disputes between national governments and EU institutions. Therefore, EU has been active in making laws and implementing them. Therefore, since the emergence of new technologies, in particular the Internet, the EU has been constantly trying to solve the internet legal problems. In 2017, the Commission stated that digitization provides many benefits in terms of innovation, employment, growth and cultural diversity. Taking advantage of these opportunities requires a collective response to some of the challenges caused by digital transformation and a review of policies affected by digitalization. The EU has enacted many laws such as General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) for protecting natural person’s data, the Digital Markets Act (DMA) with the aim of reaching potential economic growth in a coherent manner and the Digital Services Act (DSA) for safe and secure activities in the digital space.  Now, the complicated innovation “Artificial Intelligence” (AI) has brought new legal problems. AI is not a new innovation. Actually, AI has been rooted in the previous century, when Alan Turing, a British mathematician, made The Bomb to encode the Enigma code which was used by the German army in the Second World War. After its successful function, working on AI has continued to grow with all of its ups and downs. Now, AI tries to simulate the function of  human’s brain and on the ground of using new technologies, improved scientific methods and developed computer science, AI has improved and become generative. Generally, Generative AI works based on a complicated process which consists of deep learning, machine learning, natural language processing (NLP) and artificial neurons. These parts work completely related together to analyze and organize input data to answer users’ requests clearly and exactly. So, this function is like the human's brain function and has its difficulties, ambiguity and complexity. Also, artificial intelligence functions are broad and complex. This is used for a variety of purposes, from recipe suggestions to complex math problems and if it has mistaken, it can learn from them to correct its mistakes and improve its abilities. This technology helps human beings a lot in various majors such as medical diagnosis, automatic translations and natural disaster predictions. However, due to its game-changing nature, it poses new challenges for law enforcement and policymakers. Specifically, the European Union has tried to regulate Artificial intelligence with current laws and new policies. In 2018, In addition to emphasizing the guarantee of data protection and ethical standards, with the aim of preventing the risks of artificial intelligence and using its benefits, artificial intelligence was aligned with the legislative priorities of the European Union. In 2020, European Union published a report on "the European approach to excellence and trust" in artificial intelligence, which emphasized the existence of clear rules and a safe environment to build people's trust in artificial intelligence, with supporting the artificial intelligence growth and development. In order to synchronize laws related to artificial intelligence, a single and comprehensive law on artificial intelligence was reviewed by the European Commission, the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament. The draft was proposed by the European Commission in 2021 and approved by the European legislators in 2023. Despite the definitions and purposes in this draft, the risks of using AI systems are introduced and regulated. The use of AI systems to create or expand facial recognition databases, recognize people's emotions in workplaces and educational institutions, and using “biometric classification systems'' are all examples of the inhibited risks of AI which are fortunately prohibited unless the law specifically allows for these risks.  Additionally, there are high AI risks associated with AI systems in products. These products are protected by General Product Safety Directive (GPSD) 2001/95/EC and the new AI regulations. In addition, intelligence systems used in administrative, employment, immigration, asylum, and border management must be recorded in the EU data repositories. However, all challenges are not limited to risks. About copyright, directives and regulations have been in force since 1991 and now Directive 2019/790 contains provisions on the protection of copyright in the digital field. Therefore, when generative AI uses a lot of data for text and data mining (TDM) or other purposes, this data collection input must be used with their authors’ authorization. Additionally, after the content is produced, it must be shown that the content was created by artificial intelligence so that users can know whether the creator is human or not.In conclusion, this article endeavors to explain the history of the European Union and its groundbreaking legislative measures in different subjects, specifically in artificial intelligence. Some provisions of the draft of the AI Act are analyzed which are new in the world and they can affect other countries’ legislations in the AI field.

Les technologies numeriques ont un potentiel considerable de transformation des societes et des economies. Par ailleurs, la Pandemie Covid 19 fut l’accelerateur d’un monde de plus en plus digital. La crise sanitaire a montre l’importance majeure de l’acces a l’internet. Les pays equipes en infrastructures digitales developpees etaient sans aucun doute mieux a meme de fournir des services a leur population. Il est donc aujourd’hui plus que jamais necessaire d’accelerer la Transition Numerique pour non seulement reconstruire en mieux apres le Covid, mais aussi pour faire avancer les 17 objectifs du developpement durable 2030, definis par l’ONU en 2015. Cependant les technologies numeriques ne presentent pas seulement des bienfaits et comportent en contrepartie des dangers et menaces.De nombreuses preoccupations se sont fait jour ces dernieres annees face aux situations d’abus, qui remettent en question les droits fondamentaux.Inquietudes mises en lumiere,entre autres, par le rapport annuel de la Commission Europeenne sur l’application de la Charte des droits fondamentaux dans l’UE, publie en decembre 2021. Les defis a relever a l’ere numerique sont nombreux.Cet article met particulierement l’accent sur les problemes lies successivement, a la Fracture numerique d’un cote et a la Diffusion des contenus illicites sur l’internet d’un autre cote.Ainsi il est necessaire aujourd’hui d’instaurer un environnement propice aux TIC de telle manière a ce que chacun puisse pleinement tirer parti des enormes avantages de la connectivite universelle et efficace, dans un espace cyber ou regne la paix, la confiance et la securite.Combler la Fracture numerique et en meme temps enrayer la diffusion des contenus illicites en ligne, font partie des grandes priorites fixees a l’echelle mondiale.

The right to mental health is one of the main components of the right to health and one of the main examples of children’s rights. Various factors are influential in threatening or realizing this right of children including the cyberspace. Cyberspace is important as nowadays children spend a lot of time in it while a significant part of this space is not appropriate for the age and mental state of children as well it has a detrimental effect on their psyche. Using descriptive-analytical method, this study intends to answer this question that: How can the right to children's mental health in cyberspace be realized according to the Iranian legal system, Islam and international human rights instruments? To answer this question, different rights of children in cyberspace including the right to education, the right to privacy, the right to security and the right to play and recreation, and their relation with the right to mental health of children have been investigated. The results indicate that in the international human rights system, especially in protection of children’s right, some measures have been considered by the governments. In Islam, the health of people has been highly emphasized in the Quranic verses and hadith. However, in Iranian legal system, some measures have been taken to protect the mental health of children in cyberspace, but in practice, there are much to do to achieve the desired situation.

Providing a framework for the application of artificial intelligence is an urgent need, given the growing use of it, the sooner the boundaries are defined in this area, the necessary balance between freedom of research and innovation, on the one hand, and the protection of values. Establish a common democratic society, including human rights. There are currently two draft resolutions around the world that will be finalized in the very near future, one with an ethical dimension developed by UNESCO, while the other with a draft convention with specific features. Hard wages will have a strong enforcement guarantee after approval. Every time a new technology has emerged, these two international and regional institutions have provided the necessary framework earlier than their counterparts, and this time they have taken the lead in the emergence of new technology. Undoubtedly, the moral advice of UNESCO, on the one hand, and the Council of Europe Convention, on the other hand, will play an important role in humanizing the age of artificial intelligence. However, the role of the European Union and the UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression has not been less than that of the two institutions.

Global communications law is a transnational law, the vast majority of which is developed outside the governments and essentially is seeking synchronization, not uniformity. This article tries to answer the questions of how global communications law affects national and territorial law. What are the decisions of governments against it’s effects and consequences? What are the actions that are being taken and how the resistance to the global communications law would be conducted? And based on what reasons and logic the resistance is observed? The results of this study indicate that the phenomenon of globalization and the formation of universal norms have an impact on legal systems. In other words, globalization has made legal systems vulnerable to the penetration of foreign norms and has made them vulnerable to coping and resisting to this phenomenon. Also, the globalization, have made legal systems to compete with each other, in such a way as to reveal the differences, similarities, strengths, and weaknesses of each, and it has led governments to coordinate their norms instead of confronting this phenomenon.

Il semblerait que l’Etat régulateur soit beaucoup plus apte a gérer les défis de l’ère numérique que l’état monopolistique. Conférant a des autorités en son sein, chacune indépendante et experte, la régulation d’un secteur donné du numérique, ledit Etat fonctionne de manière beaucoup plus ouvert et décentralisée, ce qui est un facteur déterminant pour la bonne gestion du numérique. Les régulateurs s’emploient de manière quotidienne à rendre effective la coexistence entre des intérêts souvent divergents au sein du monde numérique. Ainsi parviennent à se concrétiser d’une part les droits fondamentaux des citoyens et d’autre part l’innovation, rendue possible par la participation du secteur privé. Faute de reconnaître le droit a l’innovation au secteur privé et par conséquent dépourvu d’un système de régulateurs indépendant et par ailleurs fortement présent dans les secteurs économiques et technologiques, l’état monopolistique aura logiquement du mal à pourvoir aux nombreux besoins et demandes des citoyens numériques. Cet article traite de préférence de la régulation à l’européenne laquelle a l’opposé de la régulation anglo-saxonne, comporte deux volets économique d’une part et sociale d’autre part. Une dimension sociale qui est d’ailleurs fortement perceptible. Mais qu’en est-il exactement de la chine qui en tant qu’état planificateur ou le secteur public fortement présent dans l’économie mais ou le libéralisme économique s’est fait jour malgré tout depuis quelques années déjà est loin de constituer un état régulateur. Alors qu’une avancée spectaculaire de ce pays dans le domaine du numérique et de l’intelligence artificielle est annoncée pour les années à venir, des questions nous interpellent. Comment la chine fait – elle pour réussir cet exploit, mais surtout comment procède t’elle pour faire profiter les citoyens chinois de ces progrès ? Parvient elle à honorer ses obligations positives dans le domaine du numérique ?

La liberté et le pluralisme des medias en tant que corollaires indispensables du droit a la liberté d’expression, revêtent une importance cardinale pour la démocratie. Or la révolution numérique a eu un impact considérable sur le fonctionnement du secteur des medias et sur le pluralisme des medias. Des avancées qui suscitent d’une part des espoirs, puisque l’on peut désormais accéder a une multitude d’informations et de contenus en provenance de sources diverses, mais aussi d’autre part des préoccupations concernant le pluralisme des medias. Conformément a leurs obligations positives en matière des droits de l’homme, ce sont les Etats qui doivent jouer un rôle de premier plan dans la promotion d’un environnement propice au pluralisme des medias. Soutenir par ailleurs les recherches universitaires dans le domaine des concentrations des medias et du pluralisme, notamment en ce qui concerne l’impact des nouvelles technologies, ne pourrait que les aider dans cette voie.

Le concept de l'Etat de droit a été forgé par la doctrine juridique allemande à partir de la seconde moitié du 19eme siècle. A la suite de la globalisation il fait désormais partie des valeurs prônées par les Etats démocratiques. Comportant de nombreux critères, la notion sus-citée n'a cessé d'évoluer au fil des années. Son effectivité a été rendu possible grâce au travail de nombreuses institutions et autorités comme par exemple le pouvoir législatif les juges etc… Il ne faut pas cependant pour sous-estimer le rôle joué par les medias libres, les chiens de garde de la démocratie, dans la consolidation de l'Etat de droit. En effet la révélation de l'affaire "Benalla" par le journal le Monde Durant l'été 2018 en passant par la Déclaration d'Accra rédigée au même moment par l'Unesco à l’occasion de la célébration de la journée internationale de la liberté de la presse placée sous le signe de "Medias, justice et état de droit : les contrepoids du pouvoir" sont là pour nous rappeler que les medias peuvent contribuer à renforcer de manière considérable l'Etat de droit. Clé mots: medias, Etat de droit, affaire "Benalla", Déclaration d'Accra, Unesco.

International law community has provided a new action program in the area of sustainable development. At the same time, in the recent years, new information and communication technologies has had remarkable progress. However, technology alone does not suffice for such development and there is a need for proper regulation and policy-making. New regulations at the national, regional and international levels has been deprived. Now, the question is whether the regulatory frameworks are able to make new technologies serving development goals or not. This paper tends to examine this question based on a comparative study.