جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « Achaemenids » در نشریات گروه « تاریخ »

The structure of the court and the political organization that ruled the vast territory under Achaemenid rule were of great importance in the continuation of this rule. The Achaemenid court with a structure including: mother king, queen and crown prince, princes, heads of families, eunuchs, a position similar to the great minister - the spy system (known as the corners and eyes of the king) and ... in all political developments of this dynasty Was involved. One of the important issues in examining this structure is the role of the king in this organization. It seems that the Achaemenids in influencing the organization and structure of the court in their Achaemenid Empire were influenced by the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, especially Assyria and Babylon. In addition to the Assyrian civilization, the ancient Median and Elamite governments also provided suitable models for the rulers of this dynasty. It was and the power of the Shah was absolute and unlimited and the Shah was a symbol of the full ownership of the Iranian society and the owner of all the property and wealth of the people. What is certain is that the study of this structure will provide valuable information about the role of the Shah in the pyramid of political power of the Achaemenid court to historians.

The potential vulnerability of primitive societies to natural disasters, such as droughts, floods, and famines caused by climate change, is an important issue that requires careful study. The main aim of this research is to investigate the possible effects of ancient environmental and climatic changes on Bronze Age settlements in southeastern Iran, as well as the main dynasties that ruled Iran based on archaeological and historical evidence of territorial boundaries, economic and political prosperity. Adaptation of climatic and cultural changes in the southeast of Iran can provide valuable information for researchers. In this regard, this article aims to answer the question of whether climate change has affected the ancient societies of Jiroft, and to what extent climate change has affected the economic prosperity and political influence of the ruling dynasties that have affected Iran. In the present study, using a combination of geochemical and pollinological indicators, we examine paleoclimatic changes of the southeastern plateau of Iran during the past 4000 years. Significant agricultural activities existed between 3900 and 3700 years ago in the southeast of Iran during moderate climatic conditions. Dry conditions with increased dust prevailed over the region from 3300 to 2900 years ago. Wet conditions from about 2900 to 2300 years ago facilitated extensive agriculture and coincided with the flourishing of regional governments such as the Medes, Urartos, and Mannas in the western Iran, and after that the Achaemenid Empire throughout Greater Iran. The decline of the Achaemenid Empire coincided with the beginning of a dry period that made agriculture less prosperous in Jiroft for nearly 200 years. Southeast Iran experienced humid conditions between 1550 and 1300 years ago, which coincided with the economic prosperity of the middle to late Sassanid Empire.

In the present article Sancisi-Weerdenburg attempts to paint a picture of Xerxes’ mental character and his personality according to the Greek sources especially the Histories of Herodotus, Achaemenid inscriptions and depictions, and more importantly, critique the merits of every group of sources for writing the history of Achaemenids. Her main question is whether Xerxes’ portrait and character in Classical sources and modern research agree with reality or are rooted in helleno-centric bias that has been embodied in history books generation after generation without being historically criticized. Moreover, she concentrates on the correct evaluation of Achaemenid inscriptions and the fact that they are the results of oral and written literary traditions and not the personal independent qualities of kings. Her method is examining and criticizes Greek sources, Achaemenid inscriptions, and depictions to present a new perspective on the subject. In this regard, Sancisi-Weerdenburg finally concludes: firstly, many of the questions that scholars have raised, and naturally their answers are the results of  helleno-centric bias. Secondly, in examining the sources, we should take two elements into consideration before deducing about a person or an era: tradition and innovation. Thirdly, the personality of Xerxes more than reflecting a deep difference in his morals and religious policies compared to previous kings indicates the continuation of the same traditions and principles, particularly the traditions of Darius’s reign. Fourthly, issues like Xerxes’ irascible temper or his being a womanizer are not based on solid and repetitious evidence. Hence his period can even be considered the climax.

Cyrus the Younger in his unsuccessful attempt to to get the royal throne and crown from his brother Artaxerxes II, enlisted a great body of mercenaries with help of his friend Greek officers. The study of these officers using the prosopography approach shows that the geographical origin of the absolute majority of them was the city-states located in the Peloponnesse Peninsula or the Peloponnessian League. The present article, in addition to proposing the hypothesis mentioned above, aims to analyze its reasons using a descriptive-analytical method and based on library sources. A survey of primary sources of that period shows that change in Darius II's diplomacy during the Peloponnesian Wars and in particular practical actions of Cyrus the Younger as ruler of Asia Minor caused quantitative and qualitative superiority of Peloponnesians among friends and mercenaries of Achaemenid prince.

Cambyses II, following in the footsteps of Cyrus the Great, continued the Achaemenid policy of consolidating and expanding the empire’s territorial holdings. One of the strategic territorialization endeavors involved a campaign to Egypt, the preparations for which had been initiated during Cyrus’s reign and executed by Cambyses. This military campaign resulted in the annexation of Egypt to the vast Achaemenid Empire. To gain a more profound insight into the reciprocal cultural influences between the Achaemenids and Egypt, it is imperative to meticulously examine the extant archaeological evidence from this period, unearthed and studied by diverse archaeologists and scholars. This article aims to provide a critical assessment of the book Achaemenids in Egypt with a focus on archaeological evidence.

With the conquest of Babylon,Cyrus and the Achaemenid court became acquainted with the structures of Babylonian and Mesopotamian agricultural economics.On the one hand,this structure was based on the rich temples of Babylon,which in addition to the vast agricultural lands belonging to the temples,played an important role in the economy and agriculture of Babylon by providing loans and agricultural inputs to small and large Babylonian farmers.In addition, wealthy Babylonian families competed with the temples of Babylon by setting up private agricultural credit enterprises and lending seeds,cattle,and land.Despite the abundance of wealth and facilities of the temples of Babylon,but with the Achaemenid domination of Babylon,the role and economic power of the temples of Babylon was greatly reduced and instead the role and economic power of the agricultural enterprises of Babylon,especially Egibi and Murašu were greatly increased.But this process eventually stopped and the activities of these enterprises were abruptly ended at the beginning of Xerxes'reign.In this research,the causes of these issues and the policies of the Achaemenids in this regard are analyzed and also the results of these policies are analyzed.The results of this study indicate that the Achaemenids deliberately implemented such a policy in order to consolidate their dominance and the foundations of their authority in Babylon.There is also evidence of the failure of this Achaemenid policy in Babylon and its impact on the unrest and revolts of Babylon in the time of Xerxes.This article has been prepared based on the available evidence of the library and historical and analytical research methods.

From the beginning of human life, women worked alongside men for livelihood. As life became more complex, especially with the formation of local governments and then the great kingdom which led to the division of labor among different sections of society, women also played a role in this new life in different ways. With the formation of the great Achaemenid Empire and the expansion of economic activities that required more labor, women alongside men, became more active in economic activity. Much has been written about the status of women, especially the political, social, and economic activities of court women during the Achaemenid period, but no coherent work has been done about the socio-economic role of lower-class women in this period. Therefore, based on Persepolis inscriptions and other ancient sources and with a descriptive-analytical approach, using the method of historical studies, in this research an attempt has been made to study the status and socio-economic activities of the lower-class women in Achaemenid period. In other words, this study seeks to answer the fundamental question of whether women of the lower classes of Achaemenid society participated in socio-economic activities and in which kind of occupation they were mostly engaged in. Evidence shows that in parallel with men, they were active in the social and economic activities of society and worked in various occupations, in many cases and based on their skills, they received equal wages as men.

According to Alexander’s historians, the Macedonian conqueror has respected the memory of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire, as he conquered the Persian territories. It seems very interesting that the destroyer of the Achaemenid dynasty be a lover of its founder. However, it has already been proven that Alexander, parallel to his battles, has ever attempted to show his eligibility to succeed the great Achaemenid kings. Yet, it is another matter when Strabo reports that Alexander’s surrender to Cyrus the Great was so obvious that he was attributed as Philocorus ( a lover of Cyrus). The problem is, to what extent does the study of the career of Alexander the Great in dealing with the memory of the founder of the Achaemenid Empire allow us to make such an impression as claimed by his historians? Was Alexander really a lover of Cyrus the Great? Focusing on the reports to which they have somehow linked the Macedonian conqueror to the memory of the founder of the Achaemenid Empire and based on modern historical research, the present article indicates that the Macedonian conqueror, due to his Greek upbringing and extensive knowledge of the power structures and legitimacy of the Achaemenid kings as well as his political position, before and after the death of Darius III, has shown a quite dual and actually political treatment towards the memory of the founder of the Achaemenid Empire Cyrus the Great.

The following article touches upon the question of what factors did the Achaemenid women exert power? To answer this question, first, we considered women's influencing methods in the Achaemenid political process by providing some instances from Classical sources. After analyzing and comparing these reports with archaeological discoveries and administrative material, particularly with Persepolis tablets and Babylonian clays, the aforementioned factors are discussed. Their importance is touched upon regarding women's most significant political roles in the Achaemenid court, in other words, political agency. In the end, it is demonstrated that women's most important ways to exercise political power in the Achaemenid court were conducted by financial independence, organizing a structure of loyal spies and eunuchs, alliance with powerful Persian Houses, military commanders, and royal officials through family ties, royal marriages and pursuing common purposes between Harem and military and civilian foundations.

Cyrus the Great has been always considered as the founder of Achaemenid Empire. Whereas there is no significant source in his homeland about him and the researches about his life and death can be only found in foreign sources. The most important sources which provide a clear picture of his life, are the Greek historians’ works and their posterities’ in the next periods. However, these sources have been wrapped in a halo of myths and consequently have problems and ambiguities. Cyrus’s death is also a complicated issue in Achaemenid period and in addition to above mentioned problems, there is a contradiction in the sources. From various reports, two general contents can be resulted. One is death in the final conflict and the second is natural death. The fundamental question of this research is how to analyze the contradictions of the texts about Cyrus II’s death. Accordingly, in this research, it is aimed to study the sources with a critical approach by analyzing each narration in context of time, place and discourse. The findings of this study show that the various narrations about Cyrus’s death are just reports among the other reports that had different elements and origins for each of them. Also by critical analysis of each narration, it tries to assess the credential characteristics of each report. The research method is descriptive-analytical in library style.

After the conquest of Lydia and its capital Sardis by Cyrus the Great in 547 BCE, almost all parts of Asia Minor, including Cilicia in southern Asia Minor, came under Persian rule.Although the syennesis dynasty, the rulers of Cilicia were able to maintain their hereditary sovereignty over this land to some extent as semi-independent by helping Cyrus conquer Sardis, but the geopolitical and economic position of Cilicia caused the Achaemenids to pay special attention to this land from the very beginning.Because, being on the trade route, which on the one hand to connect the sea routes in the Mediterranean to the royal road  and on the other hand that connected Asia Minor to northern Syria and the Mesopotamia, had made Cilicia a center of trade and played an important role in the economic development of the Achaemenid Empire.However, despite the position and economic importance of this land in the Achaemenid period, but so far no independent research has been done in this regard. Therefore, by looking at the geographical and geopolitical location of Cilicia, and using ancient historical reports and archaeological data and based on the method of historical research in this study, an attempt has been made to examine the trade and economic status of Cilicia in the Achaemenid period.

The information about Achaemenid women based on the works of Greek authors, Persepolis treasury and fortification tablets involves some objects such as seals and statues which are not only a few, but also most of them are related to the position of the queens and royal women. Meanwhile, less attention has been paid to non-royal women as a significant part of the Achaemind society. The present survey, aiming to study the economic participation of non-royal women in the Achaemenid period according to Persepolis tablets, is going to answer the basic question that “What were the non-royal women’s jobs in Achaemenid society?” In this survey, 49 tablets, out of 161 studied tablets, relating to the women’s job and salary information are presented separately in the tables 1 and 2. We have come to some conclusions by collecting data through library research and using functionalism theory and descriptive-analytic method. Considering the two factors of having a job and receiving salary, the survey’s findings indicate that women participated in different occupations and various job categories based on their expertise and abilities, and for every job they did, they received specific amount of ration including barely, beer and rarely meat and sometimes, the salary was in the form of silver.

Elam is one of the historical periods of Iran; This period extended to the south, center, and west, especialy southwestern Iran, and by the third millennium B.C. emerged as a coherent force that claimed to penetrate the political scene of western Asia. The Elamites achieved their power by combining the resources of the lowlands and the highlands, and they endured for more than 2,500 years, more than any other dynasty or empire in the Near East. The New Elamite period coincides with the Iron Age in Najd, Iran, and, according to historical-literary sources, coincides with great governments such as the Medes or emperors such as the Ellipse, and outside the borders of the Iranian plateau with New Assyria and Babylon in Mesopotamia. This regime was fallen in 646 B.C. by repeated and severe attacks of Ashurbanipal central government and seemingly abolished by the middle of the sixth century B.C., coinciding with the advent of the Achaemenid Empire. In this paper, using the library method, we have attempted to determine the boundaries of New Elam after Assurbanipal's invasion on the basis of archaeological evidence and Elamite literary sources; we also seek to identify its influence on subsequent periods. According to the reliefs of Kul-e farah I (Izeh), Eshkaft-e Salman, the tomb of Jubaji (Ramhormoz) and Arjan (Behbahan), they are all located in the east of the Elamite realm. The present-day cities of Baghmalek and Omidiyeh which are located between these places, have probably been part of the Elamite state after Ashurbanipal. Other peripheral areas, such as Hendijan, Bandar Mahshahr, areas from the west of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Provinces, and the eastern areas of Ahvaz, as well as Shushtar to Shoush, were most likely subject to the New Elamite political center in the east.

Which parts of Arabian Peninsula were under the Achaemenids’ control? and how did they administer those regions? Researchers have widely different viewpoints on the answers to these questions. The present paper is an attempt to clarify the political and administrative policy of the Achaemenids regarding this land, through reviewing previous research, and according to new historical and archaeological evidence. This study indicates that a large part of the peninsula was unknown and out of reach at that time. So, it cannot be considered as an integrated geographical and political unit. It seems that, Arabia, administratively and politically, was divided into separate parts: the satrapy of Arabāya from southern Syria and the Negev desert to the northern Hijaz; and some areas along the southern coasts of the Persian Gulf, such as Bahrain (Tiliman/Dilmun) and Oman (Maka), were also considered as separate political units. The Achaemenids’ administrative system managed the southern coasts of the Persian Gulf through the satrapies of Babylon and Makran (14th Satrapy), and they had under control the transit areas of northern and western Arabia through an alliance with the Qedarite Confederation. The expansion of qanats and the revenues from the incense trade show that there has been a mutually beneficial relationship between the two sides.

Odes is a collection in four books of poems by Quintus Horatius Flaccus, the Roman writer and poet of the first century BC. The poems cover a wide range of topics about human relationships, everyday issues, and historical events. Parthians as one of the most important neighbors and rivals of the Roman Empire, and Achaemenids as Parthians’ descendants have been mentioned in different parts of this collection. Considering the shortage of sources on some parts of the history of Ancient Iran, especially the Parthian period, that has made the researchers encounter problems, this literary work would be a good source for contemporary historians who intend to study the foreign relations of Parthians with the Roman Empire, and the viewpoints of Romans on Iranians in the Achaemenid period. This research adopts an analytical-descriptive method to study how the Ancient Iranians are depicted in Odes of Horace and to compare critically the historical materials contained therein with other historical texts of the ancient world.

Law and order has played a key role for Iranians throughout history, and one of the most important duties of the rulers of this land has been to maintain law and order.  The Achaemenid Empire was the first and largest kingdom in the world, which was considered an ideal model for many governments.  This study tries to clarify what the Achaemenids understood from the concept of order, law and disorder, and considering Darius's victory in managing crises and establishing lasting order, how they made the law and order inclusive and stable .  At the beginning, a summary of Darius's account on the suppression of revolts, is given in Bistoon's inscription then by examining and explaining the concepts of order, security, lies, truth, disobedience and law, it becomes clear that these concepts were among the most important socio-political categories of the time.  The Achaemenids have been successful and capable to manage the most extensive government in history and to establish the necessary law and order  at both theoretical and executive levels and mechanisms of law and order.

So far different views have been put forward about two semi-mythical dynasties of Pishdadids and Kayanids. Some call them whole legends, some believe they are the storied versions of the Medes and Achaemenid era, some claims Pishdadids were legend but the Kayanids were historical and some others believe both were two historical distinct dynasties. But whether there is a field exploration about them or design a chronology based on computing library data, Not much effort could be observed. One of the problems is in which part of historical eras could Kayanids dynasty be placed that could be connected to the Achaemenids and Alexander periods. In this article based on the data of various related documents, this chronology is the issue.

The regions of the South Caucasus (present-day Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan) as well as Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) were part of the vast Achaemenid Empire (330-550 BC), with vast archaeological data including jewelry, seals, and metal utensils. , Pottery, etc. in these areas, have been obtained from excavations of Achaemenid layers. But the most important data found in these areas are the reliefs and architecture with Achaemenid art themes. While a number of Achaemenid palaces have been found in the South Caucasus region, a number of prominent Achaemenid satrapies have survived in Anatolia; While in the Caucasus no reliefs have been found so far, and in Anatolia no architectural structures or architectural elements similar to Persepolis have been found. These differences seem to reflect the Achaemenid policies of governing the areas under their control and their federal model of government

There are many researches and assumptions about the family's dependence and dependence during the first Achaemenid period. In the Oriental historiography, sometimes a legendary and mythic texture, the recognition of the descendants and descendants and the dependence of the hero-kings family, which was raised to the level of the divinity in a relative way, does not seem to be very convenient. The question of this study is that the transfer of power from the Medes to the Persians, and then at the beginning of this series, to the extent that the transfer of power to the other branch of the Achaemenid dynasty has been effective in the validity of the proposed assignments? The research hypothesis is based on the fact that one of the oldest attributions of the founder of a new kingdom is to the Achaemenid dynasty of the preceding rulers in Iranian history, and in the first period of the rulers of this dynasty they talked about the transfer of power to other branches of this The family is well-known, many studies have taken place in history that have a formal and imitative image and are more closely aligned with the traditions of Greek historians such as Herodotus. The result of this research shows that with a little analysis and interpretation of historical developments and phenomena, especially with regard to its eastern and mythological context, the issue of descent and assignment in the first Achaemenid period was also to be interpreted and analyzed in other ways.