جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « Seljuks » در نشریات گروه « تاریخ »

The Sasanian era is one of the most brilliant periods of Iranian art before Islam. Sasanian metalwork art has a great value because it was influenced by ancient artistic elements and in other words, it was cast in the form of taste and taste of Sasanian era Iran. This art to some extent followed the traditions of the Achaemenians and especially the Parthians and after the emergence of Islam and the Arab conquests until the time we are discussing (the Seljuks) and even after that, the art of metalworking directly received this influence from ancient Iran. In this article, we aim to investigate the indicators of Sasanian metalwork art and the degree of influence of the Seljuks from the Sasanians using the historical research method. The review of sources and articles shows that Sasanian metalwork works have different formal, role, decorative and structural characteristics. Among them, the influences and inspirations of the form and role, in addition to the Islamic periods, are more visible in the Seljuk period. Because the Iranians had a rich civilizational background, and the conquering Arabs and other conquerors encouraged them to immediately use this cultural heritage and use the same features and indicators of the past metalworking art, which was manifested in a magnificent and excellent way in the created works. And it continued.

The Kerman Seljuk Sultanate or Al-Qaward (432-583 AH), one of the most important local governments in Seljuk history, was formed by Qaward in Kerman and controlled Kerman to the coast of Oman for one hundred and fifty years. It was the source of changes in the economy and land and sea trade; so that during this period, Kerman became one of the commercial bases in the territory of the Great Seljuk. Although due to the challenge between Sultan Malik Shah and Qaward, the founder of the Kerman Seljuk, several wars took place which caused a strain in the their relations, but finally they made peace and Al-Qaward tried not to interfere in the conflicts between the princes and the central government. This study aimed to identify the factors of survival and continuity of this local dynasty during the critical period after the death of Malek Shah. The results showed that the political attitude of Qaward's successors towards the central government in not intervening in the Seljuk conflicts and their attention to commercial and economic prosperity in the long term became the secret of its survival and stability. This research tries to analyze the subject from different angles based on the historical research method with a descriptive approach and referring to the original sources.

One of the main characteristics of the economic system in a part of the Abbasid Caliphate and its contemporary semi-independent governments was the expansion of the feudal system. The system of akhta was initially formed with the aim of solving the economic problems of the government, especially in paying the salaries and duties of the soldiers. But its excessive growth and expansion, especially during the Seljuk period, had harmful consequences. The devastating effect on the economic and social life of the villages and the lives of the villagers was one of the most important consequences. With this description, in this research, an attempt is made to answer this main question by relying more on the text of Atba-ul-Katba, why the expansion of the feudal system during the Seljuk period had devastating economic and social effects on the lives of the peasants, and what are these effects? Based on the findings of the research, the growing greed of feudal lords for the expansion of feudal lands, the weakness of the government's supervision of the work of the feudal lords, the lack of sufficient knowledge of feudal lords about agriculture and the continuous exploitation of the villagers, all the causes of the destitution and poverty of the farming villagers and in Their social and economic life had completely collapsed.

This article compares the political and military approaches of the Seljuks of Iran and the Fatimids of Egypt in the way of handing over the military fiefdoms and exploitation to the amirs of those two governments. Through the comparative method based on description and analysis, the article has reached the findings that the Seljuks and Fatimids - who were thinking of expanding their influence - in a similar behavior in the field of land tenure system based on fiefdoms, used lands to increase motivation and the pure obedience of the military commanders. But over time, this approach led to the authority of military commanders and the decline of these governments. Fatimids, unlike the Selajqahs, who only granted the vassalage to military amirs, also gave the bureaucrats the benefit of this type of vassalage.

The main opposition of the Ismailis' government and thought were the Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuk monarchy. The Ismailis didn't stop to react and utilized any opportunity to harm them, especially the Seljuk government which was accessible for the Ismailis. The outcome of such conflict was confrontation, positions based on conflict a between the Ismailis and the Seljuks. Thus, studying the background of this continuous and pervasive conflict is an undeniable necessity which will reveal a part of Iran's political and intellectual history. Therefore, the current research investigates the Ismailis movement and its ties and conflict with the Seljuk government by using an analytical- descriptive method. Also, their positions will be studied in different viewpoints. The results of the current research indicated that the relationship of the big Sunni government of the Seljuks with the Ismailis was established as based on the attitude of jurisprudence school of the Sunni scholars. In addition, the lack of a peaceful solution to express dissatisfaction was one of the main reasons for the violence of the Ismaili sect and its conflict with the Seljuk government, the most important result and consequence of which was the radicalization of the political atmosphere and the Ismailis' resorting to terror. The opposite point of this situation was the neglect of the opportunity for dialogue, the use of force to suppress the opposition and the application of social, political, religious and cultural pressures, discrimination and social restrictions by the Seljuks.

Political power increased at the end of the Abbasid caliphate period (447-656), especially during the Nāṣir period (575-622). The return of the political and military power of the Abbasids, rather than being indebted to the Nāṣir period, was due to the measures and political conditions of the two previous caliphs, Mustarshid (529-512) and Muqtafi (555-530). The problem of this research is to examine the factors influencing the change in the relationship between the caliphate and the Seljūks during the period of these two caliphs, which led to a change in the process of restoring the position of the caliphate during the period of Nāṣir. The question derived from the problem is, what were the factors of restoring political and military power of the Abbasids during the period of Mustarshid and Muqtafi? It seems that during the caliphate period of these two caliphs, With the reduction of political-military power of the Seljūks due to the intervention of third powers, the political and military power of the Abbasid caliphate was restored. The findings of this research, which was conducted with historical method and statistical analysis, showed that among the six caliphs before Nāṣir, the contribution of two caliphs, Mustarshid and Muqtafi, was more important in reviving the political and military status of the caliphate. This importance is due to the personality and length of the caliphate period of these two caliphs, intra-dynasty differences and the instability of the Seljūk sultanate period.

The Seljuks were a Turkic family and a tribe of Ghaz Turks who migrated to Iran from Transoxiana. One of the measures that they took to maintain their position was to establish family ties. The political marriages of the Seljuks, which took place for various political reasons, had political effects and consequences for them and the Seljuks without considering that these marriages will leave negative effects in the future and through these marriages, the Seljuks hoped to be better able to exert their influence in the region. Although in the Seljuk rule, these political marriages could be described as both internal and external, but the form of extramarital was much more influential. This study tries to answer the question by descriptive-analytical method that what were the effects and consequences of Seljuk political marriages for them? The results of the study show that the achievements of these marriages in most cases were in the form of transfer of power, legitimacy and spiritual power for the Seljuks, stability of borders, elimination of enemity, consolidation of power, gaining an ally and finally maintaining the Seljuk rule.

One of the important events of the saljukian history is the collapsing of the dynasty and to know about its effective factors. The Turkish tribes who attained empire from desert dwelling, with creating a disciplined army and benefitting from Iranian governmental rules established a powerful kingdom, ruled Georgia, asia minor till Mediterranean sea. However, not after a long time, internal and international changing caused dividing and downful. One of the unique factors such as grazing powerful bureaucrats and politicians have adopted a cynical and impact of their actions that brought down and collapse the hierarchy of government of the great Seljuks the internal.

Succession wars began from the very moment that the Seljuks state was formed. Seljuks had a tribal insight about power. By this way of thinking, power belonged to all members of the tribe and the ruling family who controlled all the power was a representation of the members of the tribe. This system was useful in tribal life or living in a steppe, but it did not help to preserve the unity of a great empire such as the Seljuk empire, which feared civil war every time a successor was about to be chosen. This article is devoted to answering this question: How do Islamic and Iranian political thoughts, help to solve the succession crisis and legitimacy in the Seljuk era? This study claims that Seljuks considered two models of Islamic and Iranian political thought to solve the succession crisis. It seems that in the period under study, Islamic theoretical foundations found great importance in the matter of succession and were effective in maintaining the political order and stability of Seljuks, hence we will discuss its components and the opinions of Muslim thinkers in that matter

Khwājih Niẓām-ul-Mulk did most of his country and military service during the time of Alp-Arsalān and Malikshāh, and as a minister under their rule. In Sayr-ul-mulūk he expresses his ideas regarding bureaucracy and different levels of governance, including the military structure of the state, which is one of the main pillars of power. The present study collects data using written sources, and examines the data using content analysis. We attempt to answer the following questions: “As a bureaucrat, what views did Niẓām-ul-Mulk hold towards the military?” and “Which merits does he mention when it comes to the professional status of military?” In other words, the purpose of the present study is to define the status of the military, and to extract a model of military merits based on Khwājih Niẓām-ul-Mulk’s viewpoints.It is suggested that the military are given major focus in Sayr-ul-mulūk. Although Niẓām-ul-Mulk criticizes the military’s activities during his own time, he enumerates several merits in Sayr-ul-mulūk as important factors in forming the military’s status. These include military experience and strength, respecting the superiors, not intruding on people’s property (professional aspect), the multi-ethnic nature of the military, and the neatness of military men’s looks and tools (personal aspect).

The Seljuk government had two major internal barriers to establishing centralized and stable bureaucratic management. The first obstacle was the lack of stable financial and monetary resources. The second obstacle was the lack of a centralized communication and transportation system in the political realm. The dominance of the natural economy in the society and the low prevalence of money in the market and trade relations caused the shortage and limitation of monetary resources in the central treasury. Because the government had to collect taxes in a non-monetary way. Lack of liquidity in the government treasury was the most important obstacle to the establishment and consolidation of the bureaucracy. The policy of the Seljuk government in Assignment of Igta’ and non-cash payments to government officials was due to lack of liquidity. Also, the lack of a transportation system and continuous means of communication within the political realm led to the inability of the Central Court to continuously oversee the provinces and the activities of local and province governors. These two conditions led to the disintegration of the Seljuk state and the collapse of the central bureaucracy.

The Zangid Atabegs fought with the governments of the Levant, both Crusaders and Muslims, during their time which is why the military force was a significant part of their reign. Seljuks were the origin of the Zengid dynasty. Before them, the Seljuks were also present in the Levant. Therefore, The Zangid Atabeg army has similarities with the Seljuk army. However, the Zangid dynasty formed some changes in the old Seljuk army based on the geographical conditions of the Levant and the island, other forces, and enemies like the Byzantines and the Crusaders. This paper seeks to answer the question, what was the Zangid Atabeg army like, and what changes did it go through until the year 569 A.H.? Based on the findings of this research, the Zangid Atabeg held the majority of Seljuk military positions, but the main difference was their Cavalry. The Turkomans formed the core force of the army, and Turkish slaves, Bedouin Arabs, Kurdish warriors, Ehadath, and Khorasani infantry followed them. The army's financial resources were Iqta', cash, and spoils of war. As the crusaders became the main enemy of the Zangid Atabeg, there were changes in both the warfare and the forces they used, mainly to repel the heavy attacks of the crusader's arms.

Khajeh Nizam al-Mulk Tusi, the famous minister of the Seljuk era, served as ministers of two kings of the dynasty, namely Alb Arslan (1067-1077) and Malik-Shah (1077-1097) for thirty years and played the main role in organizing and managing the Seljuk government. One of his most important measures was creating an army referred to as the Nizamiyeh slaves. This organized group, consisting of slaves bought by Nizam al-Mulk, operated directly under the command of the minister. Particularly after the death of Nizam al-Mulk, they were one of the most influential groups in the political events of the Seljuk era for about a decade. This research tried to answer the question of the purpose and motivation of Khajeh Nizam al-Mulk in creating a group of military slaves as well as the role they played in the political currents of the Seljuk era, using a descriptive-analytical method and utilizing first-hand sources of that time. The findings of the study indicate that the insecurity in the position of bureaucrats in the pre-Seljuk dynasty, i.e. the Ghaznavids, and in the Seljuk era urged Nizam al-Mulk to establish an independent military force to stabilize his position as a powerful bureaucrat. This group also appeared influential in the political currents of the Seljuk era after Khajeh's death.

With the commencement of limited giving state (divani) lands to the militaries as an iqta in the Buyid period and spread and Stabilize of this in the Seljuk period, Made a major changes in the land economy’s structure of Iran’s plateau which remained almost unchanged from arrival of the Islam in Iran until the Seljuk domination. The main problem of this article is to investigate the effects of iqta expansion on the structure of Iran’s land economy and its usual production relations. Also in this article, with the analytical-historical method and using the comparative comparison technique, I have studied the prosperity of agricultural production and the production relations related to it between iqta regions and other areas. I have also compared conditions of the land economy before and after the expansion of this land using system and it have been shown that the expansion of the iqta has caused damage to Iran’s agricultural economy, both in terms of  the growth of  productive forces and changing the most type mode of production relations in the Iran’s plateau land economy from "fixed ownership portion" To the " MOZARIE "and how it led to the more Exploitation of direct productive forces and separation them from the tools of production and the appropriate share of the product. Moreover, the causes of this downward trend in Iran's agricultural economy and the adverse consequences of these changes in production relations after the expansion ofiqta are discussed.

The arrival of the Seljuk Turks in the early fifth century AH brought about extensive changes in the Iranian plateau. The defeat of the Ghaznavids by these newcomers and the later fall of Alebuyeh was the primary result of the arrival of the Seljuk Turkmen. Newly arrived Turkmen tribes disrupted security and order in various regions, and these tribes became known as one of the disruptors of security. At first, the Turkmen tribes did not adhere to an orderly structure, and each led a tribe or clan to conquer the region. The formation of the Great Seljuk government in the territory of the Iranian plateau caused the sultans and ministers of this government, as an Islamic government, to try to establish order and security in the territory under their domination. This could be done by using specific mechanisms that will be addressed in the present study. The present study uses a descriptive-analytical method and approach with the question "What mechanisms were used to create security in the cities of the Seljuk period?". The findings of the present study show that the provision of internal security of cities in the territory of the Seljuk government was in the hands of officials and positions such as chief, judge, police, and accountant, each of whom played their role based on the role and position intended for them. The Seljuks also used the institutions of their predecessors to secure cities.

In discourses concerned with the Islamic state, ghaza was a central concept from the time of the Prophet of Islam. The term ghazahas its root in ghazwa, or Muslim wars led by the Prophet himself against infidels. After the death of the Prophet of Islam, historians such as al-Waqidi used al-Maghazi (the plural of ghaza/ghazwa) for the prophet’s battles, and al-Futuh (the plural of fath) for the battles after him as well as the conquests of both the Roman and Persian Empires. However, from the Umayyad period, in particular, in the Abbasid age, the term ghaza gradually began to replace ghazwa, jahad and futuh and became the most important term and a popular notion of the religious literature in the war with non-Muslims. The geographical areas of the ghaza in the east were against the Turks and the Chinese; in the west the Romans and in the north against the Russians, Georgians, Armenians and the Khazars (Turks). Although ghaza was apparently intended to spread Islam, it was also a means of seizing the war booty, territorial expansion, enslavement and also contributed to bolstering the ligitamacy of rulers among the community. By using a descriptive-analytical method, this article deals with the holy war of Muslim rulers with non-Muslims in the Caucasian borders (the Russians, Georgians, Armenians, and Khazars/Turks) from the Umayyad period to the Battle of Malazgird. In these four centuries, Muslim rulers frequently fought the four tribal groups and the Romans who supported them, however, a significant point that distinguished their wars (ghazas) from those on the other fronts, was that they could extend the scope of their conquests of the periods of the Caliphate Rashidun to northern Caucasia. In this region, they had mainly taken up a defensive position and in most cases with the help of volunteer ghazis were repelling the attacks of these four groups.

Political marriage was a prudential connection between ruling families and was regarded as an effective method to achieve important governmental goals. This type of marriage became more popular from the fourth century AH onwards, simultaneously with the formation and development of semi-independent governments in Iran. Needed to establish the peaceful relations and to take advantage of the opportunities ahead, the rulers used them to solve the complex and political equations. About the role of political marriages in regulating the relations of governments from the 4th to the 7th century AH, so far has not been conducted any coherent and thematic research, especially based on public histories. The Findings of this research show that some of the Abbasid caliphs, the semi-independent governments of Al-Buwayhids ,Ghaznawids, Seljuks, Qarakhanids and some local governments have benefited the most from it. The results show that governments usually established marital ties to maintain position, confronting the enemy, deepening the friendship, the peace and security, expanding the territory, and rarely threatening and humiliating. The main function of these marriages was to facilitate, guarantee and complete the agreements and sometimes was the only solution of it. The present article will explain the evidences of political marriage in regulation of the relations of governments with a descriptive-analytical method.

Many dynasties have emerged, gained power and been destroyed in Iran. The Seljuqs were a dynasty of the Turkomans of Ayoghuz who were able to dominate large areas of the east of the Islamic State in the early fifth lunar century. This people laid the foundation of a great monarchy, which is unparalleled in the history of Iran after Islam in terms of size and power. The present study aims to investigate the factors of the collapse and decline of the power of the Seljuk dynasty. The current research method is in the category of descriptive-analytical research. The results of this research indicate that during the Seljuk period, many factors led to the decline of the government and ultimately the collapse of this dynasty. These factors include: the issue of succession, relations between the Seljuks and the Abbasid caliphate, which was a long and eroding relationship, the periodic phenomenon that weakened the Seljuk government financially, the Ismailis and Fatimids, who weakened power by assassinating high-ranking Seljuk government officials, Atabkan Which created the first divisions of the Seljuk dynasty, the Turkmen, as well as two other factors that are very important, the oppression of the Seljuk sultans and the strained relations between the sultans and the ministers that led to riots in all parts of the Seljuk territory. As a result, all the mentioned factors caused the collapse of the Seljuk dynasty.

One of the most important and critical periods in the Shiite history is the Seljuk era. In this era, the situation of the Shiite Muslims changed due to the change of government and the replacement of the Sunni state with the Shiite state of Al- Buwayh. It is thought that with the emergence of Seljuks, who had a deep adherence to the Sunni denomination and the Abbasid caliphate, the Shiite must have been restricted and marginalized. On the contrary, in the Seljuk era, especially in its second half, Shiite centers developed and scientific and educational institutions and scientific and research activities not only did not suffer from defects, but also continued to operate with remarkable performance. This paper discusses the reasons for the preservation and continuation of Shiism and its activities in this period. It seems that the main factors in the continuation of Shiism have been the pursuit of scientific and educational development, adherence to principles combined with observance of moderation and taqiyyah, and presence in executive and political positions. These are the reasons why Shiite community and its scientific leadership continued to develop despite the elimination of the powerful Shiite government of Al-Buwayh.

Iraq-i- Ajam was one of Geographical-Historical areas once considered as one of the most important states of Iran throughout its history. It has always been the interests of many rulers to identify the boundaries of the realm of their domination, geographers, and other scholars in terms of geographically determining the boundaries of scientific centers and enumerating important cities. On the other hand, the Iranian rulers dominated the cities, settlements, military centers and roads of these strategic area, which could, in addition to maintaining the security of their western borders - by creating impenetrable platforms - adjacent to the capital of the western dynasties of Iran, using geographical conditions. So It should be noted that Iraq-i-Ajam had a special position in the economy of regional governments and trade. In the present study, with a special reference to the historical context and methodology, Iraq-i-Ajam based on geographical and historical sources in different periods, is discussed by using historical geography approach. We will deal with lexicography and its meaning in literary and historical texts, then examine the boundaries of the province of Jabal and its transformation to Iraq -i- Ajam in later geographical sources. Finally we will survey the changes of its boundaries throughout history and separation Kurdistan from it.