جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « conquests » در نشریات گروه « تاریخ »

In general, the researchers of the historical issues of the Middle East and the history of Islam in Iran and other Islamic lands in the modern era, relying on the historical sources of the past centuries as well as the historiographical approaches of the European Orientalism and Islamology currents, have considered the expansion of Islam mainly the result of the Arabs’ sword fights and their conquests, and with little attention to some documentary reflections and making comparative comparisons and time and place feasibility studies, what is written in the ancient sources of Islamic history under the titles of “conquests and Maghazi” and the like have been introduced as the main lines of developments in the history of the growth and expansion of Islam. Naturally, one of the reasons for this issue, regardless of some approaches of ideological historiography schools of the new era, has been the inevitability of later researchers in using ancient writings, but in these contemporary studies, issues such as paying attention to historical material works in the fields of art and Architecture and archeology are considered less. On the other hand, some of the few studies that have been done so far, which contain new and different views on the sources of Islamic history, including the history of Islam in the land of Spain, by providing logical and documented reasons, and conducting comparative studies and feasibility studies of time and place of a more documented picture and according to the reality of how Islam spread 1. This article was previously presented in the form of a speech at the international conference “ Cultural Dialogue and Iran and Spain”, Tehran, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, November 26-27, 2018, and its full text is presented for the first time in this It will be published. 2. Assistant professor of History, Faculty member of the National Library and Archives of I.R. of Iran; [email protected] and entered other lands, especially the Iberian Peninsula and Spain, they have been given less attention and revision. In this sense, the present article tries to review the way and how the spread of Islam in the Iberian Peninsula and Andalusia, based on the book “Seven Centuries of Rise and Fall of Islamic Civilization in Spain” by Ignacio Olagoue.

The first step of the Russi’s expansionism in the Caucasus was trying to acquire knowledge about this land and its people, which manifested itself in the form of “Orientalism”. Communicating with the ethnicities and Khans of the region, the creation of the Caucasus defense line and its expansion to the south was an important and final step in the conquest of the Caucasus. In order for establishing their sovereignty in the Caucasus and exploiting its natural resources, the Russians set up a new administrative system in the form of the Caucasus administrative- territorial unit. This descriptive-analytical research seeks to answer the question of how the Caucasus administrative-territorial unit was formed in the political geography of Tsarist Russia. The findings show that the process of integrating the Caucasus into the territory of Tsarist Russia was a gradual process in the form of a long-term strategy. This was achieved by combining the scientific achievements of orientalists and the actions of Russian military forces. The establishment of military bases in strategic places and settlement of Christian tribes in these places was very effective in stabilizing and consolidating the defense line of the Caucasus.

In the continuation of their conquests, Muslims, when they entered the Mediterranean Sea area, felt the necessity of adopting a specific maritime strategy due to the importance of the region and the historical presence of the Byzantine Empire in the region. Considering this, the problem of the current research, which is explained in a descriptive and analytical way, concerns the strategy of Muslims in the naval battles of the Mediterranean Sea in the first Hijri century. The findings of the research show that the naval conquests can be considered a new stage of Muslim victories at the beginning of Islam. It seems that after entering the Mediterranean area, the Muslim Arabs, despite not having the necessary experience, challenged the long-standing authority of Byzantium by adopting a set of policies, and gradually emerged as a maritime power in the region. Increasing their deep knowledge and understanding of the importance of the sea, paying special attention to the maritime industry, strengthening maritime transport, establishing shipyards, building ports and coastal cities and turning them into population centers, as well as strengthening the naval fleet were part of the strategic components that Muslims employed in the naval battles of this region.

One of the reasons for the tendency of the Muslim Arabs to conquer Trans-Nahar and Khwarizm was that they were not able to conquer Tabaristan in the beginning of the conquests, and when they realized that the Chinese were connected with Tabaristan through Farad, and also, the presence of the Turks in the northeastern and southern regions of Tabaristan. Khwarazm doubled the difficulty of the conquests, they decided to seize the area of ​​Suq al-Jishi of Tabaristan in order to prevent the advance of the Chinese and Turks. But the geographical conditions of this region, such as: impassability, dense forests and swampy area, high humidity and continuous rains, as well as the resistance of the people, made the work of conquest difficult.This research, using the descriptive-analytical method and relying on library studies, tries to answer the question that the process of occupying the north and northeast of the Iranian plateau took place based on what process? Studies show that due to the threat of non-Muslim influence in strategic areas of Iran and the necessity of connecting the conquered areas to the route of conquests and emphasizing the territorial integrity of Iran, the Islamic Caliphate was able to control Fararod and Tabaristan areas by sending numerous troops and attracting the target areas. In a symmetric time frame, he took possession. However, despite the Umayyad campaigns, the Abbasids gained the fruits of their conquest of Tabaristan and tied the fate of this region to Khorasan and Mavarlanhar.

After the death of the Prophet of God, one of the actions of the Muslim Arabs was to invade other lands, for various reasons and purposes, which is mentioned in the works of historians as conquests. Most of the existing accounts of the conquest of the lands have been compiled by historians of the Iraqi School of Journalism in books such as Tarikh Tabari and Fatooha al-Boldan al-Belazori. One of the topics mentioned in these works is the presence of the sons of Ali ibn Abi Talib in the conquests in Gorgan and Tabarestan. Regardless of its accuracy, this news has been repeated in subsequent works to the extent that it has undergone unsubstantiated additions and even a means to destroy the image of Islam and Shia by the opposition. The main issue of this research is the validity of reports based on the presence of Imam Hassan and Hussein in the conquests. It seems that the writers of the first centuries did not pay attention to the accuracy of the reports and it is not clear what their reasons were for publishing the reports. Authors who have repeated this news in the following centuries have also lacked a realistic approach. The present study has paid attention to the reports in the first sources and its reflection in the later works with a descriptive-analytical method and with a critical look.

Mughira bin Shuba is one of the elite Arabs from the Thaqif tribe, who has played an important role in many important accidents of the early days of Islam. Since various sources mostly mention Mughira as a veteran politician, no independent research has been done on his military performance. Meanwhile, to know exactly the thoughts and ideas of Maghira, we should also pay attention to his military activities.Because according to fragments of documents, in addition to being present in the political and social arenas, Mughira accompanied the Prophet in many of the Islamic conquests, and in overseas wars to confront the two empires of Iran and Rome in great conquests such as Qadisiyah , Nahavand and Hamedan, which led to the complete occupation of Iran, were present and this presence has left a noticeable impact on his performance during his chancellorship in Basra and Kufa. Some consider his progress in the field of management , due to his presence in fronts outside the peninsula and his familiarity with Iranian and Roman culture.Now, in this research, we are looking for an answer to the question, what role did Mughirah bin Shuba play in the conquests that led to the conquest of Iran? Based on this hypothesis, it seems that Mughira was in charge of the negotiating team before the Qadisiyah war and was present in the conquest of Nahavand and Hamadan as a high-ranking commander

The Islamic conquest in Iran and the encounter between the Arab and Iranian cultures, after a period of conflict, opened the way to convergence and interaction, and in the shadow of interaction and mutual influence, some of the cultural elements of the Iranian people were absorbed among the Arab people, and the Iranians also adapted some elements from the Arabs. One of the aspects of this interaction was food, which the present article tries to investigate in a historical way by describing and analyzing the data collected from library sources. The findings of this research show that the Arabs were greatly influenced by the Iranians through different types of food and customs; meanwhile, after accepting Islam and leaving aside some of the foods and drinks that were forbidden in the new religion, Iranians also adopted some of the Islamic food culture.

Various factors affect the approach of scholars in the field of thinking and knowledge, of which historical events is considerable. The historical event of the conquests of the first caliphs and war booty clearly had a great impact on promoting the economic life of Muslims living in that era. The benefits obtained from the booty also influenced the thought of scholars of that time and the eras close to it, concerning the outstanding component of those conquests, i.e. the primary jihad. Accordingly, some thinkers such as Tabarī (d. 310 AH) in order to stabilize the semantic system organized by the conquests of the caliphs in the collective mind of the community, understood most of the Qur’anic ayahs of jihad with the idea of ​​primary jihad. This interpretive attitude emphasizes a meaningful relation with the intellectual atmosphere dominant during his lifetime about the conquests of the first caliphs. This analytical-critical research is a new step in analyzing and proving this meaningful concept. Findings show that Tabarī has deviated from the correct scientific path in understanding ayahs of jihad. Influenced by the conquests of the first caliphs and in order to approve them, he has sometimes tried to mention an untruthful narration, abrogating all jihad ayahs in favor of primary jihad, and deviating from the firm principles of the conduct of the Prophet.

The fall of the Sassanids changed the political, economical, social and cultural structures of Iran’s society. Changing land ownership was one of the consequences of this fall. Despite the importance of this issue, land ownership changes after the Muslim conquests of Savad (Iraq) have been less considered. The main question of this study is what kind of lands were in Savad and after the dominance of the Muslims, specifically during the period of the first three caliphs’ period, what were the changes of these lands’ ownership? Findings of the study indicate that land ownership of Savad was as Khaleseh (pure), Teuol, Endowment (Waqf), Private, Gift and Mavat (dead land). After the Muslim’s victory, the ownership of the lands that were conquered in peace did not change, but others did and became in the form of savafi, Endowment (waqf), Iqta' and tributary (Kharāj) lands. Although, the decisions of each of the Caliphs were different in this regard.

This paper understands the value of the historical heritage of the Companions of Hadith and its impact on the minds of the audience of these works on the subject of the conquests of the Umayyad era and with the aim of discovering the thematic network in these texts to achieve a model that explains their general logic and structure. It tries to answer this question: "What topics do the companions of hadith present to the audience in recording the news of the conquests?" To find this answer, we first studied the historical heritage of the Companions of Hadith in this regard among the existing works, the history of Khalifa Ibn Khayyat (Ibn Khayyat 240 AH), the remains of the book al-Ma'rifah wa al-Tarikh (Faswi 277 AH), Tarikh al-Umma wa al-Muluk (Tabari 310 AH), Al-Mu'tazim Fi Tarikh Al-Umam wa al-Muluk, (Abd al-Rahman Ibn Jawzi 597 AH) were selected and data related to the news of the conquests were extracted from them, and then the thematic analysis method and the implementation of its various stages were used to analyze the data and discover the themes hidden in the selected sources, which are in the form of five themes. These are the Islamic conquests, the rule of the Muslims over the open areas and the enjoyment of its interests, the military power of the Muslims, the military superiority of the Muslims over the enemy, the power of the enemy over the Muslims. These themes are in line with the legitimacy of the Umayyads, according to the approach of the Companions of Hadith to the Caliphate.

The conquests of Muslims faced the world of Islam with problems, so that some specific strategies were taken by the early caliphs to settle them. The inclination of plunders toward the center of caliphate, the possession of habitants’ farming lands in the newly conquered lands, the foundation of casern in city as well as the migration of Arab Muslims to Iran were considered the outcomes of conquests. In spite of some benefits for the Muslims, they were along with some detriments for the new Islamic society on one hand and the newly conquered areas of Iran on the other hand. The detriments such as putting outstanding followers aside, unfair division of plunders, development of Nobel class, heterogeneous composition of population in the caserns of cities, reoccurrence of racial prejudices, no fundamental propagation of Islam, no supervision on the conduct of agents related to the reception of tax and development of a great branch of proprietors in Hejaz.The present research investigates and criticizes the consequences of conquests through the descriptive-analytical method of research

In Sassanid era, Iran was conquered by the Muslims and the gradual domination of Muslim Arabs on Iran was initiated successively. The investigation of sources related to this era clarifies that various political exchanges was done among the political leaders, Sassanid military commanders and Muslims in time of conquests from 11 to 21 A.H between Iran and Muslim Arabs. These negotiations led to no conclusion and could not prevent the military opposition. This research is to study the way of negotiating and clarify the main reason why they led to no conclusion as well as the happening of war through the historical analysis based on the content analysis and the utilization of library sources. The findings of research indicate that numerous negotiations were gently done among the parties. However, the negotiations mostly led to bragging due to the Muslims’ religious beliefs and the strategic discourse based on the Iranians’ materialistic analyses. Eventually, the different approaches of the parties along with the superciliousness of the Iranians in time of negotiation made the war inevitable. Nevertheless, it seems that a covert deterioration in Sassanid camp was developed after these negotiations.

Abstract With the start of the Arab conquests in Iraq and The Levant (al-Sham), various political and religious groups, including Zoroastrians, Christians and Jews who inhabited these territories, have shown different reactions. In this research, the writers have tried to shows that what were the Jewish community status and what strategy they have been taken in the Muslim invasion to Iraq and the Levant? Findings of this research, which are based on a descriptive-analytic approach, show that during the Muslim conquests, Jews, according to their conditions and location, had various reactions including war, resistance in long blockade, and peace and cooperation with the Arabs. Jews in the Muslim community were mostly had same situation as Christians and continued to live socially by paying the ransom (Jaziyeh) to the Islamic State.

Abstract </strong> The conquests of Arab Muslims in Iran is one of the issues that have not yet been fully explored and there are many unanswered questions. A fundamental question to ask is what role the ayahs of the Holy Qur'an played in the course of conquering Iran. The present study claims that the Qur'anic ayahs, as a guidebook for Muslims, have played a key role in Arabs' attitude and their performance in the conquests of Iran and their victory over the Sassanid government. Therefore, taking a descriptive-analytical approach, it attempts to reconstruct the position of the Qur'anic ayahs in the calculations and mental space of Arab Muslims by re-reading the historical texts. Muslims seem to have greatly profited from the inspirations of the Qur'anic ayahs in their battles. They were encouraged by the promises of victory given to the Muslims in the Qur'anic ayahs, and aroused the spirit of self-sacrifice and martyrdom by the idea of sacrificing oneself.

The legitimacy of the early caliphs was seriously challenged by the lack of consensus among the Ummah and their strong competitors. On the other hand, Abu Bakr's first act after solving the problem of murtads (apostates) was the beginning of the conquests, which brought in great wealth and prosperity. There seems to be a strong link between the conquests and the reputation and legitimacy of the caliphs. This study first examines the role of conquests in legitimizing the rule of the first three caliphs and then discusses its closure during the caliphate of Imam Ali (AS) and its effect on the emergence of government issues. The findings of this study indicate that the benefits of the conquests played a major role in the satisfaction of the Arabs with the caliphs' rule, but the government problems had been grown since the relatives of Uthman got the profits and then the conquests during the caliphate of Imam Ali (AS) were closed.

Having used the descriptive- analyzing- deducing method, in this research, the situation of the Iranian captives and slaves of the conquests period will be studied. The findings of the research show that a great part of captives were massacred in the process of conquests. Men were the main victims. Nevertheless, some of them with women and children who included a great part of prisoners as slaves were dispatched to the Arabic lands. The slaves enjoyed with little rights and did low jobs. But, some of male slaves succeeded in acquiring a better situation by learning religious and literary sciences and in some cases were freed from slavery. The female slaves have no share from the promotion. Most of them were bought and sold as bond-maid and slave, or married the Arabs, slaves and mawali. Having studied the lineage of transmitters of hadith whom recorded in the Tabaqat al-kubra of Ibn Sa'd it will be proved that slaves had a considerable share in the population component of Hijaz.

Azerbaijan was conquered after the Battle of Nahāvand, but the successive rebels of its people and its proximity to the Caucasus and Gilan showed the significance of Azerbaijan and the need for military presence in it for the Arabs. Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays was one of the commanders who was present in the conquests of Azerbaijan and was appointed by Uthman as the ruler of Azerbaijan and remained in the position until the beginning of Ali's caliphate. The aim of the present study was to evaluate Al-Ash'ath’s appointment as the ruler of Azerbaijan and its measures in this region using a descriptive-analytical method and library texts. The present research attempts to answer the following questions: why was Al-Ash'ath appointed to rule Azerbaijan? What were the areas of Arab migration to Azerbaijan and its consequences during the rule of Al-Ash'ath’s? And why and how Imam Ali dismissed Al-Ash’ath from the emirate of this region and what was his reaction? Findings of the research show that Al-Ash'ath was appointed as the governor of Azerbaijan due to the close connection with Uthman and created the basis for the migration of Arabs to this region and its tendency towards Islam. As Imam Ali came to the Caliphate, because did not swear allegiance to him, and had fled in Azerbaijan, he was dismissed from the Emirate

The conquest of Iran by Muslim Arabs is one of the most important developments in Iran's history. Iran was completely conquered over two decades and the Sassanid government collapsed. There are a lot of questions about this fall and the reasons for it. In this article, a new model is proposed to analyze the process of "Fotohat". The methodology of this research is library method that based on the main sources of conquests( Fotoh) in Iran. The main question is: are the conquests in Iran following a particular pattern and can we present it in the form of a theory? The second question is about how cities are conquered. Was it more than war or peace? In response to the above question, the hypothesis of this paper is formed. Iran is divided into eight regions. At the borders of these areas, we see the greatest resistance of the Iranian military and we call it "resistance at the border". After the border breaks,the advance of Muslim Arabs is more fast and less fight. As a result, the clashes are mostly by the military, and citizens are less at war. Understanding the speed and quality of conquests in Iran depends on understanding this pattern.

Jizya is one of the pre-Islamic taxes that have been signed in the Islamic era in accordance with the goals and aspirations of the Islamic society. Non-Muslims living in the Islamic realm (ahl ul-ḏimmah) paid tribute to the Islamic ruler in order to benefit from military immunity and stay their religion. The main question of the research is that the taxation of the tax on the life of the Zoroastrian Iran has laid down? It seems that Jizya has been forced to accept Islam for the obligation and coercion of the ahl ul-ḏimmah.
An examination of the historical historical texts shows that the establishment of the Jizya not only did not lead to Zoroastrians to Islam and did not create a special difficulty in their lives, but also made Zoroastrians immune from military and security payments to their religion.It was also shown that the gradual tendency of Zoroastrians to Islam was not a liberation from the tax pressure, but also to obtain better social status and to be absorbed into the dominant Islamic society

The rise of Islam in the mid-7th century led to the collapse of the power equations in the world of that day. The new Muslim Arabs defeated the most important world powers in a marvelous military movement. They drew the great Sassanian Empire to a collapse and reached the political capital and religious center of the Roman Empire. The main problem the present article addresses is what made it possible for the Muslim Arabs to achieve such quick and stunning victories? Undoubtedly, in these miraculous victories, irrespective of the spiritual power of Islam materialized in the form of jihad and martyrdom-seeking, Muslims must also have been materially and militarily attained to a degree of strength in order to fulfill their religious or material aims. In this paper, the military power of the Arab Muslims was examined from two aspects of the Arab's military differences with Iranians and Romans and the new military tactics of the Arabs, adopted proportionate to the military genius of their commanders. It was found that agility, diligence, personal ingenuity, and the difference in the method of Arab's fighting on the one hand and the design of combat techniques, combining the Iranian and Roman methods of warfare with those of Arabs led to Arab's overthrowing Iran and Rome.