جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه "سرنمون رده شناختی" در نشریات گروه "ادبیات و زبان ها"

Adverbs are among those complicated subjects different aspects of which have been investigated throughout history. However, linguists have not reached an agreement on the diverse issues related to adverbs, from its definition to the fact that whether it should be considered as a lexical category in addition to nouns, adjectives and verbs. This research is aimed at determining the place of Persian adverbs based on the typological prototype theory. Hence, according to the typological criteria, a number of adverbs used in everyday speech of standard Persian speakers as well as adverbs used in various Persian texts were analyzed. On the basis of the research results, considering the adverb as a lexical category, the unmarked adverb place in the Persian language was defined in the Croft’s semantic map of parts of speech in the lexical class of property the same as the unmarked adjectives, and it was shown that despite of the unmarked adjectives denoting the propositional act of modification within reference, the unmarked adverbs describe the propositional act of modification within predication. Moreover, the places of PPs on verbs and converbs, both of them as marked adverbs, were determined as words of object showing the propositional act of modification within predication and words of action showing the propositional act of modification within predication, respectively, in the Croft’s semantic map of parts of speech.

In this research, we have had an exact categorization for different kinds of derivational , compound and derivational-compound present participles in the frame of typological prototypes which is a universal approach towards the parts of speech. In this theory, prototypical and with no morphemes adjectives belong to the semantic class of ‘property’ and to ‘modification’ in terms of propositional act constructions. These prototypical adjectives should be simple and without any morphemes on the basis of structural coding of typological prototypes theory. And the adjectives which are not simple and have morphemes, are considered as marked and non- prototypical adjectives. present participles do not act similarly and are not uniform on the basis of behavioral potential. So, they are not in the same level. They are different in terms of their adjectival, nominal functions. By studying present participles in this research, it is shown that they follow the both criterion of typological prototype, and on the basis of these criterion they are non-prototypical adjectives in Persian. In other words, they are unmarked category in terms of both structural coding and behavioral potential. Finally, their position is specified on the semantic map and their behavioral potentials are shown through diagrams

In this research, we have had an exact categorization for different kinds of derivational and derivational-compound past participles in the frame of typological prototypes which is a universal approach towards the parts of speech. In this theory, prototypical  adjectives with no morphemes belong to the semantic class of ‘property’ and to ‘modification’ in terms of propositional act constructions. These prototypical adjectives should be simple and without any morphemes on the basis of structural coding of typological prototypes theory. Furthermore, the adjectives which are not simple and have morphemes, are considered as marked and non- prototypical adjectives. Indeed, the structural coding criterion specifies only that the marked member is encoded by at least as many morphemes as the unmarked member (croft, 1999:73). This generalization is an implicational universal. If a language codes a typologically unmarked member of a grammatical category by n morphemes (n > 0), then it codes a typologically marked member of that category by at least n morphemes. Past participles which are studied in this research, are marked and are not simple structurally. They are divided to derivational and derivational- compound ones which have all morphemes. Derivational past participles are made by the past stem of verb + a suffix (-h) and the derivational-compound past participles are made by a noun, adjective, adverb, pronoun + derivational past participle (stem of a verb+ suffix(h)). Therefore, they are not prototypical in terms of their structure and their different semantic class. Typological markedness also constrains the distribution of constructions exhibiting the behavioral potential of the categories; if a construction encoding the behavioral potential of members of a grammatical category is found in that category, it is found with at least the unmarked member of that category for that construction.

In this research, examples of derivational and derivational-compound past participles are collected from the definitions and classifications of Persian grammarians and linguists. Then the examples of past participles are verified based on the typological criteria; structural coding and behavioral potential. All the examples are studied through the consideration of their adjectival and nominal behavioral potentials. Finally, their status and positions are specified in the Croft’s parts of speech semantic map. Then the new classification of past participles regarding their nominal and adjectival behaviors are placed in the behavioral diagrams.

Past participles do not act similarly and are not uniform on the basis of behavioral potential. Therefore, they are not in the same level. Some derivational past participles are used both with adjectival and nominal behavioral potentials. Some of them are used only in modification and propositional constructions and with nominal behavioral criteria.  Some are used only in modification and propositional constructions.  Some of derivational-compound past participles are used as both adjectives and nouns. Some of them are used only in modification and propositional constructions and with nominal behavioral criteria. Moreover, some are used only in propositional constructions with all of nominal behavioral potentials which are considered as marked nouns. In this research, past participles behavioral potential is verified and at last it is shown that they follow the behavioral potential of typological prototype theory. Totally, their behavioral potential is not more than the behavioral potentials of unmarked nouns. Hence, they are marked category in terms of both structural coding and behavioral potential.  Finally, their position is specified on the semantic map and their behavioral potentials are shown through diagrams. The position of derivational and derivational-compound past participles on the semantic map are considered as ‘action’ in terms of semantic class and ‘modification’ in terms of propositional act. Because in all derivational and derivational-compound past participles, we have used an action for the propositional act of modification. In other words, by marking and adding morphemes to an action as a semantic class, we have used it for acting as modification. Therefore, the position of past participles is shown in the semantic map as figure 1 below.

Derivational and derivational-compound past participles’ new classifications on the basis of their adjectival, nominal or both are placed on the behavioral diagrams. behavioral potentials are shown by ovals and the positions of past participles are shown by (*) in the ovals.  One oval is dedicated to adjectival criteria. One oval is dedicated to nominal criteria. These ovals have some common spaces which are considered for past participles which have both the adjectival and nominal behavioral potential.

The most basic elements of a language which play a key role in majority of syntactic theories and morphological analyses are “parts of speech” including “adjectives”, the subject of the present contribution. The sources of Persian traditional Grammar have divided adjectives into various categories such as subjective, objective, ability types and the like. However, a considerable challenge for defining and categorizing adjectives relates to the fact that the parts of speech (henceforth, POS) have extended marked grammatical functions besides their unmarked functions. Therefore, to describe and explain POS, we should resort to a theory positing that the members of a category are not equal. The present research seeks to provide answers to the following questions:1.How are ability adjectives associated with subjective and objective patterns?
2.Which feature(s) of prototypical adjectives do subjective and objective adjectives lack?
3.Which part(s) of speech result(s) from the categorical shift of subjective and objective adjectives and how do these adjectives differ from other types of adjectives? This research has been conducted within the framework of Typological Prototype Theory (henceforth, TPT), which is a theory about categorization and has arisen from cognitive linguistics. Cognitive grammar posits that language is relative, and as Langacker (1987) puts, the linguistic system is not an all-or-nothing matter. The prototype theory was developed in the works of Brent & Key and also Rosch in the 1960s and 1970s, however it was Lakoff who first used it in relation to linguistic categories.
In line with Cognitive Grammar, Croft (2001) developed the Radical Construction Grammar in the form of a theory based upon Typological Prototype Theory, according to which the prototypical function of POS occurs in unmarked functions, and the POS may also appear in non-prototypical or peripheral functions through structural coding. This point of view states that each grammatical category has central and peripheral members, with the central members having higher frequency, being less structurally coded, and showing a complete potential behavior. 
By structural coding, we mean the use of morphemes to make a lexical category marked. Croft (2001) uses two criteria of structural coding and potential behavior for typological markedness. According to the former criterion, the marked value of a grammatical category has equal or greater morphemes than its unmarked value, while according to the latter criterion, one value of a conceptual category is grammatically more 'versatile' than the other. The grammatical behavior of the unmarked and the marked POS can be differentiated using the sub-criteria of behavioral potential criterion including comparability, function in attributive and predicative positions, and frequency of occurrence.
According to Croft (2001), there are constructions in all languages of the world for predication, reference and modification, which express the propositional acts needed by languages. We can use these propositional acts to identify the POS. Words that can fill in the positions of predication, reference and modification can be divided into semantic classes, and the basic propositional act functions of strengths of the prototypes include action, object and property. This is a descriptive – analytical research conducted using the content analysis method. The adjectives used as the raw data were collected by the researchers and the frequency of their occurrence were examined both in the Persian Language Database (PLDB) and Bijankhan Corpus. Considering the diverse texts and words used in these corpuses, it is expected that they are appropriate representatives of the texts and words used in Contemporary Persian. It is noteworthy that considering the practical limitations and the impossibility of analyzing all the selected adjectives, the researchers selected and analyzed a limited number of action adjectives and tried to select basic adjectives which are more frequently used and do not belong to a specific colloquial or written style. The present research showed that subjective and objective adjectives belong to the <modification, action> class of adjectives and are non-prototypical or peripheral adjectives. Examining the semantic and syntactic features of ability adjectives and comparing them with the subjective and objective adjectives, the researchers concluded that ability adjectives can be placed within either subjective or objective types of adjectives depending on their construction. This research also revealed that subjective and objective adjectives cannot be considered prototypical adjectives based on the structural coding criterion and the comparability sub-criterion. This conclusion was strongly confirmed through the frequency of these adjectives in the PLDB and Bijankhan Corpus. The present contribution also exhibited that the categorical shift of the Persian subjective and objective adjectives is toward the lexical category of noun and that the changes of these adjectives are different from the adjectives denoting a property or object. This research demonstrated that the TPT is able to account for the behavioral differences of the adjectives denoting property, action and object, but is incapable of explaining the behavioral differences of the sub-categories of these classes of adjectives. To reach more reliable conclusions, a typological- functional theory is needed to differentiate between all members of a category by considering all morphological, syntactic, semantic, stylistic and pragmatic criteria.
Further research can analyze other types of Persian adjectives including those denoting object and property within the framework of the TPT and determine the degree to which they are close to or distant from prototypical adjectives. It is also suggested that future researches examine other POS within this framework to specify the degree of prototypicality, thereby taking a step toward bridging the gaps in relation to the POS in Persian.

Using a descriptive-analytical method, this research investigates adjectivalization and deadjectivalization in Persian within the framework of the Typological Prototype Theory. The research specifically aims at describing and explaining the two phenomena of adjectivalization and deadjectivalization in Persian, determining the prototypicality degree of the parts of speech resulting from these two processes, and evaluating the Typological Prototype Theory in determining the prototypical features of the adjectivalized nominals and nominalized adjectivals. The raw data were primarily selected by the researchers, analyzed based on the criteria and sub-criteria of the Typological Prototype Theory, and substantiated in the Persian Language Database and Bijankhan Corpus. This research shows that the category shift in the adjectivalization phenomenon is from the

Traditional Grammarians have recognized three categories in Persian including infinitive, verbal noun and Hâsele Masdar(HM).There have been much debates on the nature of these categories especially concerning their inclusion in the category of verbs or nouns. In this paper these categories are studied within the framework of the typological prototype. According to Croft(2003) the semantic class of words alone cannot distinguish parts of speech cross-linguistically. Instead, another criterion named propositional act function is required. The semantic class includes objects, properties and actions. The propositional act functions are reference, predication and modification. It will be demonstrated that the category of infinitive and verbal noun are both a combination of action and reference. HM is not a subclass of infinitive at all, because it lacks the semantic feature of action. What has been called HM in traditional grammar is indeed the result of a derivational process with the aid of the suffix –i creating nouns from adjective and adjectves from nouns. The typological prototype approach provides a universal conceptual space for parts of speech that works cross-linguistically . However, the non- prototypical combinations of semantic class and propositional act functions often embrace more than one member in individual languages. In such cases we can distinguish different categories using formal and functional criteria.