جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « epic language » در نشریات گروه « ادبیات و زبان ها »

Today, in the light of linguistic studies, it has been determined: "which is the axis of all evolutions of poetry, language and the relationships of language components" (Shafi'i Kodkani, 2009: 27). Language can be considered a mental system and mind and language are closely related to each other. Shafi'i considers "language and thought to be two sides of the same coin". (Ibid.: 27)
One of the levels of stylistics is the language level, which is divided into phonetic, lexical and syntactic levels. At the phonetic level, the text of a work is examined in terms of musical elements, external music, side music, spiritual music, as well as general issues related to pronunciation. In this research, from the linguistic level only the phonetic level of the two Bahmannameh and Faramaraznameh systems has been taken into consideration in order to know the characteristics of the epic language and determine what the phonetic and musical structure is like in them.
Which of these two have been more successful in using phonetic processes compared to each other? 

This article, in the manner of library and analytical studies, has investigated the factors of creating music and the special song of epic poetry in them.

Both systems are limited or omitted in terms of prosodic weight.
side music:  One of the factors of music is the section in the poem, the most important effects of which are rhymes and Radif, which play an effective role in raising the musical aspect of the poem and "arousing the reader's emotions and feelings." (Fayaz Menesh, 1384: 180).
In the examination of the rhymes ending with "Ah", it was found that in both systems, most of the words are of the noun type, which somehow fit the syntactic logic of the epic language.
Excessive repetition of rhymes and defects of rhymes is one of their weaknesses. Also, they do not enjoy the topic of "unity in diversity", which is one of the basic roles of rhyme from the point of view of Shafi'i, which leads to a kind of aesthetic pleasure in poetry. (Shafi'i Kodkani, 1391: 76) By examining the lines, there are more Radif in Bahmannameh and less in Farmarznameh, and the types of Radif in Bahmannameh in order of high frequency are: pronouns, letters, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, in Farmarznameh; Pronoun, letter and noun.
Inner music
All kinds of puns, repetitions and phonemes that are obtained from the combination of words and sounds are some of the prominent features of this music. The composers of both systems have been able to use them to some extent in producing epic songs of their works.
Spiritual music
The deepest part of music is poetry. Adherence to similarity and contrast are two examples of these industries. "Contrast is one of the important linguistic components, the imaginative part of a text, which makes possible what is intellectually impossible" (Ghomlaghi and Salamat, 2021: 215) in which both industries have a high frequency.

The epic type, which is one of the oldest literary types, has a special language that is referred to as epic language. The results of the surveys showed that their weight and song are epic.
In the field of using rhymes, they do not have an acceptable variety due to a lot of repetition, and there are also rhyme defects in them. They have used short and simple lines that are suitable for epic stories. But the author of Bahman Nameh has paid more attention to the topic of Radif. In the field of inner and spiritual music, the composers have used these characteristics almost equally to bring themselves closer to the language of the epic standard. In general, they have been successful in this part of the phonetic index.

Examining the standard epic language, which is based on the theories of new criticism (especially formalism) and standard epic language, can be an efficient tool to measure and explain the specific functions of language in the literary genre of epic. In this regard, the present article has examined the system of Borzunameh based on this model and in the three main layers of the language. The book is close to standard epic language in the first layer (vocabulary, music, and structures) Although the works of art in the second layer are not as rich and creative as the epic language, they are completely consistent with the characteristics of epic texts, and the reader can easily reach the intended contents in those works through these two layers of language. The intellectual and content indicators in the third layer are very weak and inadequate compared to the standard epic language. This research was carried out by an analytical-descriptive method based on library studies, and the sample size was 500 verses from the beginning of Borzunameh epic.

language is one of the most important elements of epics and a container for expressing content, thought and imagination; Therefore, to analyze the style of epic texts, we must examine the language of these works. Bahmannameh is one of the important Pahlavi poems in Persian language, which was written in the late 5th or early 6th century by Iranshan ibn Abi al-Khair in the style of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh. This book deals with the story of Bahman, the King of Kiani, his adventures and conflicts with the Rostam family. This research aims to investigate the features of the epic language of Bahmannameh and its compatibility with the standard epic language.

The research method in this article is descriptive-analytical. According to the patterns of poetry language criticism and stylistic criteria, with the criterion of placing all or part of the verses of this system as a sample volume and its statistical evaluation, the authors criticize the various indicators and layers of the epic language in Bahmannameh.

The epic language in Bahmannameh is powerful in phonetic, rhetorical, lexical, syntactic and content aspects; In most of the verses, the resonance of explosive and obstructive phonemes can be heard. Most stanzas, rhymes and lines end with a long syllable. Discounting words has a high frequency. All these things have added to the tone and epic resonance of this book. The use of exaggeration, simile, description and other literary arrays is very artistic and shows the high power of the poet in image creation. Sometimes there are innovations in the pictures of this book. From the content point of view, the poet has been able to express the greatness and elevation of epic themes in his speech by establishing a link between words and meaning.

The epic language in Bahmannameh is completely compatible with the characteristics of standard epic language (Shahnameh of Ferdowsi). In general, Bahmannameh is a successful example of epic poems after Ferdowsi's Shahnameh.

The revenge religious epic Poem Enteghamieh / Zarirnameh by Taghan Shah Ibn Nizam Qommi Shahroudi is one of the prominent examples of religious epic in Persian literature. It was written in the 9th century AH about Zareer Khozai, Muhammad Hanafiyah, Mosayyeb, Taghan, Omar Bin Ali, Fazl Jafar and other heroes taking revenge on Yazid, Omar Saad, Yaqub Asklani, King of Aleppo and other Yazid supporters. The story of the poem begins with the arrival of the caravan of captives of Karbala to Ashqlan and ends with the rescue of Imam Sajjad (a.s.) and the caravan of Karbala from Yazid's grip and finally with Yazid's death. Examining the syntax of the poem is useful for learning more about the epic language of this poem and other religious poems. By examining the poem syntactically , more linguistic and content layers are obtained from this work. In this research, firstly, we have talked about epic, religious epic, the causes of its emergence, and offering some examples. We have also provided a brief introduction about Ibn Nizam and his poems especially Zarirnameh.Then some grammatical points of this work have been examined by citing evidence from the text. We realized that the archaic style is quite evident in it, and it can be considered one of the prominent religious epics deserving more attention in terms of the texture of the story, the power of the words, the appropriate language, and the grammatical structure.

The epic is one of the ancient literary types that recounts the events of the warriors' bravery in the best. Now, if the hero of these epics is a religious figure, this type of literature tends to become religious. By using linguistic possibilities such as words and compositions, images, rhetorical figures, and outer, side, and inner music, the poets try to represent the spirit and epic atmosphere in their works.In the Qajar period, epics had a religious form. Most of the works that appear in this area are in various religious fields, especially religious poems (Debiri-nejad, 2001:86). The Holy Prophet (pbuh) or Imams (pbuh), especially Imam Ali (pbuh) and Imam Hussein (pbuh), and great personalities such as Hamza, the uncle of the Prophet (pbuh), Mokhtar Thaghafi, etc., are the heroes of those poems. So, the author tries to look at the language and tone of two epic religious poems, Mukhtarnameh of Isfahani Khayali and Shoua'i Qajar, from a stylistic point of view.

The research method in this research is documentary as well as descriptive and analytical. Manuscripts of Shoua’i Mokhtarnama No. 1718 and Khayali Mokhtarnama No. 1/6081 were prepared. In the reference, the number of the photos was also referred to, and since each of the images of the Khayali version was on two pages, in the reference, "A" was placed next to the right page and "B" was placed next to the left page to make it easier for the audience to find the examples. The statistical data included 400 verses of each poet's poems.

3.1. The influential factors in creating an epic tone in Shou'ai and Khayali s’ Mokhtarnameh 3.1.1. Poetry music The music of the poem is an important part of making the poem have movement and tone. This can be seen by looking at meter (outer music), rhyme and radif (lateral music), verbal figures (outer music), and phonological processes, words, and compositions.  The poems of the Qajar era were written in the meter of the epic and in the convergence of prosody. The examined Mukhtarnamehs are long and written in Masnavi format. Both kinds of rhyming syllables were avaliable in both poets’ collections, the syllables CṼC and CVCC were more frequently used than other syllables. Also, in the Khayali ’s Mukhtarnameh, except for the two syllables CVC and CṼC, the other types of syllables are superior to the Shou’ai Mukhtarnameh in terms of frequency. In the examined mukhtarnamehs, various types of verbal, nominal, and lateral radif were available, which were often short and simple due to the epic atmosphere of the poem. The verbal and nominal radif had the highest frequencies, respectively. But in Shou’ai Mukhtarnameh except verbal radif, other types in terms of frequency were higher than the ones used in Khayali ’s collection. The composers of Mukhtar's poems have given their poems grandeur and an epic feeling by using repetitions and words that have long phones. Phonological processes (reduction, gemination, devoiced, elimination, substitution, addition, a- ending) are among the linguistic elements that influence the tone. The comparison of phonological processes of the two collection shows that, except for substitution, in the rest of the processes, Shou’ai is more successful than Khayali. 3.1.2. vocabulary and compositions Due to their knowledge of the ways of creating eloquent words, words and compositions, Shoua’i and Khayali paid more attention to the epic type in their mukhtarnames. Due to the number of wars in these two collocations, there are many words related to war tools and terms; because mentioning war tools plays a significant role in creating and strengthening the epic atmosphere. These two poets, by combining nouns with one or two epic components, added to the epic compositions and increased the epic tone. In 400 verses, 30 epic compositions were found in Shoua'i's collocation and 14 epic compositions were found in Khayali ’s collocation, which shows the power and artistic taste of Shoua'i in creating epic compositions. 3.1.3. The most important forms of imaginary features Simile, metaphor and exaggeration were the most important forms of imaginary features in these two collections. Simile, metaphor and exaggeration were the most important forms of imaginary features in these two collections. In two works, many metaphors such as lion, sword-wielding lion, leopard, etc. were used for heroes. Similes in these two collections have a higher frequency than other types of imaginary forms, and most of these similes are of a sensory type, which due to exaggeration, magnification and recognition have created novel and new images and an epic language and tone. Exaggeration is the most powerful element among the types of imaginary features and plays the main role in creating epic language; therefore, both epic poets tried to strengthen the epic aspect of their compositions by using this feature. Out of 400 studied verses, 13 similes, seven metaphors, and five epic exaggerations have been seen in Shoua’i, but only six similes, three metaphors, and three epic exaggerations have been used in Khayali’s Mukhtarnamah. 3.1.4. Epopee One of the tricks of epic poets is to use irony in their poems. Both Shoua’i and Khayali have included epopee in different parts of their Mukhtarnames. Epopee has been used 33 times in the Shou’ai and 21 times in the Khayali’s collection, and the authors of these works have used similes, metaphors, irony, and exaggeration to enhance them. 3.1.5. Introducing mythical and epic characters in to story The composers of Mukhtarnameh's poems have used mythological characters in making the space of the poem epic; because these heroes have played an important role in creating an epic atmosphere with courage, valor and fighting. This use of mythological characters, especially kings and Shahnameh warriors, is seen more in Mukhtarnameh Shouai. 3.1.6. Influential factors in creating a religious atmosphere in Shou’ai and Khayali’s mukhtarnamehs Religious epics have two aspects. One was the epic language that was spoken about. The other is the religious aspect, which we will discuss it. Poets have their own methods and use special elements to create an epic atmosphere. The poets discussed by us have shaped the religious aspect of the poem by using religious hints, attributing religious attributes to the characters of the poem, using dreams and true dreams and voice of unseen in the text of the poem. The names of the Prophet (pbuh) and Imams (pbuh) were mentioned 31 times in Shoua’i's Mokhtarnama. It has been used 54 times for religious characters and heroes. True dreams and dreams, as well as hearing the voice of the unseen, have been mentioned nine times. The names of the Prophet (pbuh) and the Imams (pbuh) were mentioned 41 times in Khayali Mukhtarnamah. It has been used 123 times for religious characters and heroes. Six times (3.4%), true dreams and dreams and four times about hearing the voice of the unseen have been mentioned.In both collections, the use of religious attributes for characters and heroes and referring to the names of the Prophet (pbuh) and Imams (pbuh) were among the most frequently used religious factors in creating a religious atmosphere.

In this research, the language, epic tone, and religious atmosphere were examined in the Shoua’i and Khayali Mukhtarnamehs of Qajar era poets. Investigations showed that both Shoua'i and Khayali used multiple elements and components in making the epic language and tone in their poems. They made poetry sound more musical by adding meter and prosody, different kinds of rhyme, radif, and repetition. By using phonetic processes, words, and epic and war compositions, and related tools and terms, they set the tone and atmosphere of the Mukhtarnamehs epic. Another trick of these poets is to use imagery features, i.e., metaphor, simile, and exaggeration. On the other hand, the poets added to the epic aspect of the Mukhtarnamehs with great skill and by using epopee (exaggerated epopee) and introducing mythological and epic characters into the space of the story.Another result of this research is to find out the effective elements in creating the religious atmosphere of the khayali and Shoua'ai mukhtarnamehs, which two Qajar poets did by referring to the names of the Prophet (pbuh) and imams (pbuh), the use of religious attributes for characters and heroes. True dreams and dreams have played in the space of stories and unseen voices and created the religious epics of Mukhtarnameh. Examining the charts shows that Shoua’i Qajar has paid more attention to the epic factors and contexts of his Mukhtarnameh, while Khayali Esfahani has paid more attention to the religious contexts of the Mukhtarnameh.

Nazari Ghohestani is a 7th and 8th century poet. He was born in the village of Fodaj in Birjand and died there. There is disagreement about the reason for his nickname. Some have attributed his nickname ‘Nazari’ to his thinness and weakness or his relation to Nazar Mostansar Ibn Ismail. Azhar and Mazhar is the only poem of this poet written in the eighth century. This poem has always been considered as a lyric due to a Hazaj meter. But what seems contradictory is that lyrical verses are purely romantic and have very few descriptions of war. This research seeks to find the linguistic type of this poem through analytical work, statistical analysis and the SIMIA phonometric software. The prosodic and phonetic characteristics of the poem such as monorhym (low and simple verbs), high frequency of plosives and many abbreviations have given the poem proximity to the language of epic. Also, the rhetorical features are based on the frequency of exaggerations, similes and metaphors. These features provide evidence for the epic nature of the poem. The words in this work are mostly perceptible, and the epic impression created by the proper use of words is high. The content characteristics such as objective addresses with the pronoun "you", masculine gender of language, low presence of women, and high imaginative descriptions set the work close to the epic language.

As the former of the structure of story, language is significantly important in the structural analysis. Based on this viewpoint, language structure and the way it is used, as well as the connection between the aesthetics and ultra-linguistics are specifying its type in relation with the general concept of the literary work. Also the epic language, as the basic foundation of these texts, prospers structural potentialities like word usability, syntactic of utterance, and useful intonation proper with the epical atmosphere and feelings in different levels such as vocal, semantical, etc. In oral literature, along with having stories from a simple and pure language, presence of rhapsodists and elocutionists and their interference and distort together with new elements ingression in the form of “Scrolls” compilation have increased more and more the use of epical language capacities linked to the main context of scrolls. The “Haft Lashkar” (the Seven Corps) is also one of the Rhapsodists’ Comprehensive Scrolls (RCS) during the Qajarid era of which the time of writing goes back to the year 1292 (Lunar Hijri) (almost 1871 A.D.), and it is originally the name of one of the famous rhapsodic battle-narrations, which was applied to one of the RCSs due to its fame.

One of the issues in modern criticism is the study of language of the literary works. The framework suggested for studying the epic language has focused on the reading of the language of epic poetry at different phonological and musical, morphological and syntactic, rhetorical and literary as well as theatrical levels in order to describe the quality of literary type of epics in language. For this purpose, through the innovative critic theories, mainly formalism, and based on the standard epic language (Shah-nameh Ferdowsi), the framework has been suggested for the study of the epic language at different levels. Subsequently, the paper is going to clarify the necessary indicators and illustrate the quality of them in the epic language by applying a number of evidences from epic texts, in particular Shah-nameh Ferdowsi, in order to access two goals: not only achieving the indicators of epic language but also examining them in the epic poetry and finding how the poems after Ferdowsi were or were not successful in the application of the epic language. According to this framework, it has been shown that Bazel Mashhadi, for instance, has not been successful in his using of the epic language. Moreover, the epic poetry as well as its created images, in some different aspects such as rhythms, composition and coherence, has a range of deficits as well.