church

The Renaissance era is a manifestation of contradictory and diverse thoughts. Philosophers, writers, artists, and politicians each represented a blend of classical and modern eras. In this transitional period, both the sovereignty of the Church and the sovereignty of the people were debated, alongside discussions of Christian theology and Greek philosophy. The thinkers of this era reflected this transition. Political philosophers from Machiavelli to Hobbes played a significant role in grounding the perspective on politics. While these philosophers were the pinnacle of political philosophy during this period, there were others recognized as the proverbial foothills of modern philosophy, whose insights enhance our understanding of the foundations of modern philosophy. Francisco Suárez was among those philosophers who stood at the intersection of Christian theology and Greek philosophy. His thoughts represent the transition of political thought from the celestial to the terrestrial. This paper aims to explore the concept of "law" in the political thought of this Spanish philosopher, as no research has been conducted on this topic in Persian so far. It seeks to answer the question of what definition of law exists in Suárez's thought and how this thinking has influenced the transition to popular sovereignty. The research method will be based on a contextual-textual approach.

Criminal justice faced tremendous developments in the field of sexual behaviors during the fifteenth to seventeenth A.D in Europe. These developments had been profoundly influenced by the supportive culture and religious doctrines called sexual discipline. Intellectual, political and religious proceedings blew to the unstable situation of Medieval and Lutheran wave surrounded the Europe including continental and United Kingdom. Transitional period took a place at this time within the history of law in the field of criminal justice and sexual behaviors; this transition went along with outstanding developments. Focusing on penology, functionalistic and paternalistic approach of this age which is specifically based on sexual behaviors in this research achieves a better understanding of the atmosphere of this period and explains the effectiveness and affectability of this time within the field of criminal justice.

AbstractThe early Christian church refused to accept war as moral in any circumstances and until A.D. 170 Christians were forbidden to enlist. This period of extreme pacifism lasted for three centuries after Christ.During the 4th and 5th centuries Roman Society was progressively Christianized following the conversion of the emperor Constantine. The growth in the church made it difficult to maintain pacifism because Christians were no longer a minority in Society. Also, the danger posed by the barbarian invasions made defensive war seem necessary. Augustine led the way in revising Christian attitudes toward war by formulating a series of rules to regulate violence and permit believers to fight for the empire. The Just war concept is elaborated and given authority in the Christian world by Augustine. The crusades were the most obvious example of the merger between violence and holiness which took place in the medieval church. The holy war or crusade in which the moral stakes were considered so high that any action necessary to bring victory was legitimate, particularly if the war was between God's partisans and the infidels. The early Christian church refused to accept war as moral in any circumstances and until A.D. 170 Christians were forbidden to enlist. This period of extreme pacifism lasted for three centuries after Christ.