جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه "آبیاری" در نشریات گروه "کشاورزی"

Drought stress poses a significant challenge to cumin production in Iran, particularly during the flowering and seed-setting stages. Cumin is a valuable crop with numerous medicinal properties and applications in various industries. Despite its short growing season, the economic importance of cumin makes it imperative to find ways to mitigate the effects of drought stress on seed yield. Addressing the negative effects of drought stress is crucial for improving cumin seed yield. One effective strategy is to identify drought-resistant cumin cultivars. By selecting cultivars that are more resilient to drought conditions, farmers can enhance their chances of achieving higher yields, even in challenging environments.

 This two-year study (2020-2021) aimed to assess the drought tolerance of 15 cumin ecotypes under field conditions in Karaj, Iran. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with three replications. The ecotypes evaluated were: Tabriz, Torbat Jam 8, Afghani, Khorasan-Birjand, Yazd 7, Yazd 8, Torbat Jam 9, Khorasan Razavi 8, Pakistan, Isfahan, Hindi, Khorasan Razavi 12, Isfahan 13, Sabzevar, Torbat Heydarieh. Two treatments were applied: full irrigation and drought stress. Irrigation under full irrigation was carried out every 10 days according to soil and weather conditions, while irrigation was withheld from 50% flowering to the end of the growth period under drought stress.

 The results of this study showed that drought stress reduced the yield and yield components of cumin ecotypes but increased the essential oil content. The highest seed yield of 102.78 g m-2 was achieved by the ecotype Turbat Jam 8 under full irrigation conditions, which was statistically similar to the ecotypes Afghani, Khorasan-Birjand, Yazd 7, Turbat Jam 9, and Sabzevar under normal irrigation conditions. The lowest seed yield of 65.8 g m-2 was recorded for the ecotype Khorasan Razavi 12. These results demonstrate the differential tolerance of cumin ecotypes to drought stress and highlight the potential of Turbat Jam 8 as a drought-tolerant ecotype. The Afghani ecotype proved to be drought-resistant, showing consistent grain yield under both normal irrigation and drought stress. Conversely, the Khorasan Razavi 12 ecotype was vulnerable to drought stress, exhibiting reduced biological and grain yields under these conditions. Notably, a strong positive correlation (0.973) was observed between essential oil content and seed yield, indicating that breeding for high essential oil content could also improve drought resistance and yield. In addition to the strong correlation between essential oil content and seed yield, other correlations were observed. The amount of essential oil was positively correlated with the harvest index (0.787) and the weight of one thousand seeds (0.721). Seed yield also showed positive and significant correlations with the number of umbrellas per plant (0.396), harvest index (0.287), and the number of seeds per umbrella (0.232). No other traits showed significant correlations. Biological performance had positive and significant correlations with plant height, number of branches per plant, number of umbels per plant, number of umbels per umbel, and number of seeds per umbel. According to the result of cluster analysis based on Ward's method, the ecotypes were divided into three groups. The highest number of ecotypes was in the third group (7 ecotypes) and the second group (6 ecotypes). The Afghani ecotype formed the first group alone. According to the type of ecotypes placed in a cluster, it can be said that the ecotypes in a cluster were very similar in terms of morphological and molecular characteristics, and the Afghani ecotype was different from other ecotypes.

     Drought stress and ecotype interactions had a significant impact on plant height, biological yield, and grain yield. The variation in ecotype responses to drought stress may be attributed to genetic differences. The Afghani ecotype demonstrated strong resistance to drought, showing no significant reduction in grain yield under both normal irrigation and drought stress conditions while also achieving the highest essential oil content. In contrast, the Khorasan Razavi 12 ecotype was highly sensitive to drought stress, exhibiting markedly lower biological and grain yields compared to other ecotypes.

Medicinal plants are one of the most valuable resources in Iran's wide range of natural resources, which can play an important role in society's health, job creation, and non-oil exports if they are scientifically recognized, cultivated, developed, and exploited properly. Iran is considered one of the world's best regions in terms of climate, geographical location, and medicinal plant growth, and it has been a source of production and consumption of medicinal plants in the past. Lemon balm is generally used in traditional medicine to treat digestive problems, pain, and mental disorders. Drought stress is one of the most serious and widespread problems that limit plant productivity because it negatively affects plant physiology. The effects of drought stress depend on the duration, intensity and stage of growth and the genetic tolerance capacity of plants, which can reduce the growth of plants. It causes a change in morphological and physiological structures and the pattern of biomass distribution or even death.

To study the effect of foliar different growth stimulants on the growth characteristics and essential oil of balm at different levels of drought stress, an experiment was carried out in the crop year 2021. The experiment was a split plot based on randomized complete blocks with four replications, where different levels of irrigation include irrigation after 80, 60, and 40 percent of the field crop capacity (FC) in the main plots and foliar application of different growth stimulants including control, melatonin, amino acid, and folic acid were placed in sub-plots. In this research, total chlorophyll, dry matter yield, relative water content, phenoline content, soluble sugars, essential oil content, essential oil yield, total phenol, and flavonoid were measured. The data obtained from the experiment was analyzed using SAS.9.4 software. The obtaineds averages were statistically compared using Duncan's method (LSR) and at the five percent probability level.

The results of variance analysis of the data showed that the effect of irrigation and foliar spraying on growth stimulants on all investigated traits were significant at the probability level of 1%. There was a significant difference between the interaction treatments in terms of chlorophyll content, proline content, essential oil percentage, essential oil yield, and flavonoid content at the probability level of one percent and in terms of relative leaf water content, dry matter yield, soluble sugars content and total phenol content at the probability level of five percent. The results showed the highest chlorophyll content (2.25 mg g-1 FW), relative leaf water content (88.12 percent), and dry matter yield (793.79 kg ha-1) was recorded in melatonin foliar application and irrigation of 80% of FC treatments. Also, the highest essential oil content (0.81%) and essential oil yield (6.46 kg ha-1) were observed in treating foliar application with melatonin under the irrigation treatment of 60% FC. This study allocated the highest total phenol content to melatonin foliar application at 40% of the FC conditions. In this study, 40% FC irrigation treatment increased the flavonoid content by 29.90% and 93.23%, respectively, compared to 60% and 80% FC. Furthermore, foliar application of melatonin, proline amino acid, and folic acid increased the flavonoid content compared to the control treatment by 17.64, 23.35 and 32.35%, respectively.

In this study, melatonin foliar application in all three irrigation conditions increased essential oil yield compared to the corresponding control. Under irrigation and foliar spraying of melatonin, the synthesis of secondary metabolites and essential oil has been accelerated and produced the maximum yield of essential oil. Therefore, foliar spraying of melatonin and mild water deficit stress can be recommended to achieve maximum economic yield in Lemon balm.

This research investigates the effects of brassinosteroid and melatonin foliar applications on quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) subjected to drought stress. As a highly nutritious new plant, quinoa is increasingly valued for its tolerance in arid conditions like our country. However, drought stress or irrigation deficit significantly impairs its growth and biochemical composition. Brassinosteroids and melatonin as plant growth regulators are known to enhance plant tolerance to various abiotic stresses, including drought, by modulating physiological and biochemical pathways. This research aims to elucidate how these compounds influence key growth indices, such as plant height, leaf area, biomass, harvest index and as well as biochemical characteristics like soluble carbohydrate, and proline accumulation in quinoa growing under drought stress. By understanding these effects, the study seeks to provide insights into potential agronomic practices to improve quinoa productivity and stress resilience under water-limited conditions.

The experiment, conducted at Shahid Bahonar university of Kerman during 2020 and 2021 cropping seasons, used a split-plot layout based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Main plots consisted of three irrigation levels (100%, 75%, and 50% of field capacity), and sub-plots included five foliar application treatments (control, 0.25 and 0.5 micromolar brassinosteroid, and 0.5 and 1 micromolar melatonin). Soil sampling and nutrient adjustments were made before planting. Trifluralin herbicide was used for weed control, and planting occurred on August 1st with 40 cm row spacing and 3-meter row lengths, followed by immediate irrigation. Foliar applications were conducted at the start of flowering and a week later, early in the morning before sunrise. Water stress treatments began after the first foliar application. Leaf area index (LAI) and Crop Growth Rate (CGR) were measured at the beginning of flowering and one week later, using Gardner's equations. Chlorophyll fluorescence was assessed via the saturation pulse method to determine the maximum quantum yield of photosystem II. Proline and soluble sugars measurements were taken from young leaves post-stress treatment. For morphological trait assessment, including plant height, leaf area, dry weight of aerial parts, and yield components, five plants were randomly sampled from each plot. Biological yield, harvest index, and grain yield were calculated by harvesting plants from the middle four rows, each 2 meters long. Data analysis was performed using SAS v. 9.1, with mean comparisons conducted using Duncan's multiple range test at the 5% probability level.

The results showed that foliar application of plant growth regulators (PGR) increased plant height across all irrigation levels. The greatest height, 150.5 cm, was observed with 0.5 micromolar melatonin and 100% field capacity irrigation. Additionally, 0.5 micromolar brassinosteroid with irrigation with 75% of field capacity increased plant height by 11.1% compared to the control at the same irrigation level, with a similar trend under severe drought stress. Increased drought stress reduced the leaf area index (LAI) by 8.37% and 31.6% compared to normal irrigation. The highest concentration of brassinosteroids increased the crop growth rate (CGR) at all irrigation levels (4.8, 4.4 and %16.8 in normal, mild and severe drought stress conditions respectively, but thousand grain weight decreased to %93.3 and %62 of control with rising drought stress. Brassinosteroids were more effective than melatonin in enhancing thousand grain weight. Both brassinosteroid and melatonin applications reduced chlorophyll fluorescence under mild and severe drought stress compared to controls. Soluble carbohydrates content increased by 50.4% at 50% field capacity irrigation compared to normal irrigation. Under mild stress, only brassinosteroid significantly increased proline content, with the highest level (3.19 µmol g-1) at the highest concentration. The highest dry weight, harvest index, and grain yield were achieved with 0.5 micromolar brassinosteroid under mild and severe stress. Brassinosteroids, as new phytohormones, are promising for enhancing crop productivity under stress and non-stress conditions.

Reduction in irrigation from 100% field capacity or increased drought stress led to decreased plant height, growth rate, leaf area index, thousand grain weight, and harvest index, while chlorophyll fluorescence, proline content, and soluble carbohydrates increased. Despite the increases in these two latter mentioned traits, plant dry weight and grain yield decreased under drought stress. The application of brassinosteroids and melatonin improved plant traits, with 0.5 micromolar brassinosteroid being particularly more effective, especially under mild and severe stress. This treatment mitigated drought's negative effects, suggesting its potential to enhance agricultural productivity in arid and semi-arid regions.

Bread wheat is the most important cereal and the source of calories in human nutrition worldwide. The effect of moisture stress on the quality properties of wheat is complex and is influenced by genotype, environment and their interaction. Superabsorbent polymers last for 5 -7 years in soil and can absorb water up to 200 to 400-fold of their own weight. Superabsorbent polymers are divided into two major groups, depending on their source: natural-based mateials, such as animal manures, and chemical materials. This experiment aimed to study the response of bread wheat cultivars to moisture stress and the ameliorative effects of superabsorbants on these responses.

In order to investigate the adverse effects of drought stress on wheat cultivars in the presence of different superabsorbent treatments, two separate experiments were conducted in Urmia and Khoy cities located in West Azerbaijan province, Iran. The experiments were carried out as a split factorial based on a randomized complete block design with three replications in two years (2019 and 2020). The main factor was the three moisture regimes including irrigation after evaporation of 70, 140, and 210 mm water from the class-A pan. The combination of levels of different superabsorbent treatments in wheat cultivars formed the sub-factor levels: cow manure at a rate of 40000 kg/ha (as a natural superabsorbent), chemical superabsorbent (Taravat A-200) at a rate of 200 kg/ha,  and no use of superabsorbent (control) along with two commercial cultivars of bread wheat, Mihan and Heidari. Bartlett's test was performed for the uniformity of the variances of the experimental errors. A combined analysis of variance of the two years was conducted after ensuring the uniformity of the variances of the experimental errors. The comparison of means was done with Duncan's multi-range test at the five percent probability level with MStatc statistical software.

The combined analysis of variance showed that the effects of different levels of treatments and their interactions were significant at 5% probability level for plant height, grain yield, grains/spike, 1000 grains weight, concentration of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in shoot. The highest grain yield in both locations (Urmia and Khoy) was observed for the Mihan cultivar when irrigated after 70 mm evaporation and using the chemical superabsorbent treatment, with 7930 and 7760 kg/ha in the mentioned locations, respectively. In contrast, both Mihan and Heydari cultivars had the lowest grain yield of 1490 and 2110 kg/ha in Urmia and Khoy cities, respectively, when irrigated after 140 mm evaporation and no use of superabsorbent. The concentration of nitrogen and potassium in the shoot in the presence of superabsorbent treatment was higher than those of manure and the control treatments. Meanwhile, the concentration of phosphorus in the shoot in the presence of manure treatment was higher than those of the superabsorbent and the control.

Based on the results of our experiment, using superabsorbent and animal manure as a natural superabsorbent, appeared as suitable solutions to reducing the adverse effects of drought stress on wheat crop in arid and semi-arid areas of the West West Azerbaijan province.

 Sesame is one of the oldest oilseed crops grown in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Sesame production is constrained by susceptibility to capsule shattering and excessive pre- and post-harvest seed loss. Recently, new indehiscent sesame cultivars have been developed and introduced with the characteristics of indehiscent capsules at the ripening stage and resistance to capsule and seed shattering (Langham, 2001). More research is required to convince the local farming communities to adopt and grow these new indehiscent sesame cultivars and benfit from their promising productivity. Sesame cultivars vary in their adaptability to different growing conditions.  This experiment was conducted to to determine optimum sowing date window and irrigation interval for new indehiscent sesame cultivars.

 To study the effects of sowing dates and irrigation intevals on morphological traits and seed yield of new indehiscent sesame cultivars, a field experiment was carried out as strip-split plot arrangements in randomized complete block design with four replications in Shahid Rajaei Agro-Industrial Company in Dezful, Iran, in 2021 and 2022. First main factor consisted of three sowing dates (June 5, June 20 and July 5) and second main factor included were three irrigation regimes (irrigation after 8, 13 and 18 days). Sub plots consisted of three indehiscent (Chamran, Mohajer, Barkat) and one dehiscent (Schewin) sesame cultivars.

The results showed that morphological traits and seed yield significantly decreased in both years by increasing irrigation intervals. Irrigation intervals caused significant decrease in seed yield in both years. In 2021, the seed yield of all cultivars significantly decreased under irrigation after 13 and 18 days by 12% and 34%, respectively, when compared with irrigation after 8 days. Delayed sowing dates caused significant decrease in seed yield. In 2022, the seed yield of all cultivars significantly decreased in delayed sowing dates June 20 and July 5 by 16% and 9%, respectively, when compared to June 5. In 2021, cv. Barkat had the highest seed and oil yield (1730 and 821 kg.ha-1, respectively) in irrigation after 8 days, and June 5 sowing date. In 2022, cv. Barkat had the highest seed and oil yield (1400 and 694 kg.ha-1, respectively) in irrigation after 8 days, and June 20 sowing date. Indehiscent cv. Barkat and cv. Mohajer had the lowest seed and oil yield reduction and showed greater seed yield stability under longer irrigation intevals conditions and delayed sowing date, when compared with cv. Schwin. In addition, these two cultivars can adapt to environmental changes through minimizing the seed yield losses due to seed-shattering resistance under different irrigation intervals and sowing dates.

Overall, the results of this experiment showed that sowing dates from June 5 to June 20 as the optimal sowing date window and irrigation intervals between 8 to 13 days can be recommended as a suitable crop management package to improve sustainable sesame production in warm and dry agro-climatic conditions of kuzestan province, Iran. In addition, high seed and oil yield in indehiscent cv. Barkat and cv. Mohajer facilitate mechanization of growing and harvesting of sesame as a summer crop. This is very important for food security as well as reducing water consumption by replacing it with other summer crops with higher water consumption, especially in Khuzestan conditions.

Field studies were carried out for two years at the research farm of the Faculty of ‎Agriculture‏ ‏and Natural Resources, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili. Experiment was conducted as a split plot ‎factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications. The main factor included drought ‎stress at three levels [irrigation at 80% of field capacity (no stress), irrigation at 65% of field capacity (moderate ‎stress) and irrigation at 50% of field capacity (severe stress)]. Sub factor was combination of external ‎phytoprotectants application at five levels [Distilled water as control, Ascorbic acid (1 mM), Tocopherol (1 mM) ‎‎, Silicon (1 mM) and Zinc NPS (1 mM) and inoculation with phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria at two levels (with ‎and without inoculation)]. ‎The severe water limitation (50% field capacity) compared to non-stress conditions (irrigation at 80% ‎field capacity), led to a significant decrease in wheat yield and yield components. However, the application of ‎organic (ascorbic acid and tocopherol) and mineral (silicon and zinc NPS) phytoprotectants, as well as ‎inoculation with phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria were significant on Chl a, Chl b content and also, leaf area ‎index and increment of the effective compounds in plant tolerance under stress conditions such as carotenoieds, ‎prolin and slouble sugars. under the severe water limitation, ‎application of stress modulators increased grain yield 28, 18.2, 17.3 and 9.3% in compared to no application of ‎stress modulators at the same level of irrigation‎

Considering the lack of renewable water resources in the world and the high share of the agricultural sector in water consumption, makes increasing water productivity very important. Corn is an important type of fodder that is harvested for consumption as silage of the whole plant (Coors et al., 1997). Despite having one harvest stage, this plant has a high dry matter yield. Its silage is easily prepared and it is a tasty fodder with stable quality for livestock and has higher energy than other fodder (Curran and Posch, 2000). Research results in Hamedan province in two traditional and modern irrigation systems showed that the average physical water productivity for fodder corn in traditional and modern irrigation systems was 5.11 and 6.67 kg per cubic meter of water, respectively. The average economic water productivity for fodder corn in traditional and modern irrigation system was 7678 and 10068 rials per cubic meter of water, respectively (Seyedan and Mottaghi, 2019). The main purpose of this article was to measure the water received in the field of fodder corn fields in Behbahan city and to investigate their physical and economic water productivity. To do this, the applied irrigation water, physical and economic water productivity under different agricultural management and in irrigation networks and systems can be compared and evaluated.

This research was carried out in the field and in order to investigate the effects of independent variables on applied irrigation water, physical and economic water productivity in the cultivation of fodder corn in irrigation methods and networks under the management of farmers in the cropping season (2016-2017). It was implemented in Behbahan city. Thus, in 12 farms of the farmers, the applied fodder corn irrigation water was measured (without interfering in their irrigation program). The effective rainfall of the 2016-2017 crop year in Behbahan city was calculated using the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) method. To determine the applied irrigation water, first, the inflow rate from the selected water source was measured with a suitable device (WSC flume, water meter and ultrasonic flow meter). The SPSS16 software was used for step-by-step linear multivariate regression analysis. Linear multivariate regression analysis was used to investigate the effects of independent variables on dependent parameters. One-way analysis of variance was performed with SPSS16 software. The purpose of using one-way analysis of variance was to statistically show a significant difference between the average of two or more "independent" groups. In order to compare the indicators of physical and economic water productivity , there was a need to resolve the difference. Therefore, to solve the scale difference, the common method of Z-Score standardization was used.

The results of the analysis of variance in the regression model showed that the growth period of the plant had the most significant positive effect on the amount of irrigation water with the t-statistic of 5.288. Performance with a t-statistic of 5.919 had the most significant positive effect on economic water productivity. Among the independent variables, yield and applied irrigation water had the most significant positive and negative effect on the physical productivity of water with the values of 6.419 and -6.381, respectively. The applied irrigation water varied from 4826 to 14733 cubic meters per hectare. The results of the analysis of variance and the descriptive results of the mean of the traits showed that the highest value of physical water productivity was equal to 10.128 kg/m3 in rain irrigation and the lowest value was 4.818 kg/m3 in surface irrigation in the traditional network. They had a significant difference. The calculated Z-Score values showed that 50 and 33% of the sprinkler and surface irrigation farms (modern network) had acceptable economic productivity, but 100% of the surface irrigation farms in the traditional network did not provide acceptable economic productivity.

The amount of irrigation water used in the fields with sprinkler irrigation method was 46 and 33% less than traditional and modern network fields that were irrigated by surface irrigation method. Also, the consumption of irrigation water in the surface irrigation method in the traditional network was 20% more than the surface irrigation in the modern irrigation network. This increase in water consumption was effective in reducing the irrigation efficiency of traditional networks compared to modern networks that irrigated with surface irrigation. The reason for the higher consumption of irrigation water in the surface irrigation method in the modern network compared to sprinkler irrigation can be attributed to the following factors: 1- The lack of irrigation management during the change of the irrigation shift of the fields, which sometimes happens due to the absence of the irrigation worker during the shift change. 2- lack of control of the incoming water of the fields due to the lack of meters or devices to measure the incoming flow. 3- Improper leveling of lands under the modern irrigation network, which increases the irrigation time of these fields. By covering the traditional irrigation canals with concrete or other coverings suitable for the climate of the region, water losses can be reduced. Also, the necessary training for the correct use and management of irrigation water according to the different stages of fodder corn growth will be effective in reducing water consumption. Water according to the stages of growth and development of the plant prevented the occurrence of under-irrigation stress in the stages of flowering and seed filling, which is the most important stage sensitive to water stress.

Hyssopus officinalis L. belongs to the family Lamiaceae, and is one of the endangered endemic species in Iran. This plant is rich in essential oil, flavonoids, monoterpene glycosides, trypanocidal terpenoids, rosmarinic acid, and linolenic acid6. The main compounds of the essential oil from H. officinalis L. collected from natural habitats are α-pinene, Sabinene, 3-Carene, Beta-Pinene, Cis- Pinocamphone, Myrtenol, Pinocamphone and Camphor. The environmental factors cause changes in the growth, quantity, and quality of active substances (such as alkaloids, glycosides, steroids and volatile oils) in the medicinal and aromatic plants. Among environmental stresses, water deficit stress plays an important role in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in medicinal and aromatic plants in arid and semi-arid regions like Iran. Drought stress has detrimental effects on growth and yield and can upset the balance between the antioxidant defense system and free radicals by stimulating a series of biochemical reactions, where free radicals cause cell damage. In sustainable production systems of medicinal and aromatic plants, stable quantitative and qualitative functions can be achieved under conditions of environmental stress and it is possible to improve the production of secondary metabolites in these plants under adverse environmental conditions. Therefore, this study was done to evaluate the organic elicitors on the physiological and phytochemical properties of H.officinalis to determine and introduce the best elicitor under water stress.

This investigation was done from spring (May) 2022 to fall (September) 2023 at the Research Farm (latitude. 32°20′ N, longitude. 50°51′ E, altitude. 2061 m). Based on the Köppen climate classification, the climate of the area of study is classified as cold and semiarid. The present study was conducted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications to investigate the effect of foliar application of different organic elicitors (chitosan, salicylic acid and phenylalanine) with control level (without any spraying) on the physiological and phytochemical characters of H. officinalis L. In each year, treatments were performed in 3 stages (end of vegetative, beginning of flowering and 50% of flowering) and in full flowering, harvesting was done. 3 irrigation regimes (4, 6, 8 day interval) in main plots and foliar application of elicitors in sub plots were done. The essential oils were extracted by hydro-distillation and analyzed using GC/MS.

According to obtained results, applied organic elicitors significantly influenced the physiological and phytochemical characters of H. officinalis L. However the assayed traits showed slightly variation during the studied years. In two years, the highest chlorophyll content (17.12-17.31 mg.Kg-1 FW) and total phenol content (1.77-1.81 mg.g-1 DW) were obtained in chitosan (0.5 mg.l-1) and phenyl alanine (1000 mg.l-1) treatments respectively. In most of measured characters, plants treated with chitosan (0.5 mg.l-1) and phenyl alanine (1000 mg.l-1) were in the same group. Amounts of some characters in plants treated with phenyl alanine (2000 mg.l-1) and salicylic acid (3 mM) lesser than control plants. The main constituents of essential oil were Sabinene, 3-Carene, Beta-Pinene, Cis- Pinocamphone, Myrtenol, Pinocamphone and Camphor (cyclic monoterpenes) that made the most components of essential oil plants. Among of elicitors, the chitosan effect on increasing of physiological and phytochemical characters such as the  chlorophyll content was higher than other elicitors. Applied elicitors showed significant effects on essential oil content and composition of H. officinalis L. The highest essential oil content (0.89-0.91 %) was obtained from the treated plants by chitosan (0.5 mg.l-1). According to the biennial results of the chemical analysis of the essential oils from plants treated with treatments by GC/MS, the most important chemical compounds that determine the quality of H. officinalis L. essential oil including Beta-Pinene (17.93-18.53 %), Pinocamphone (24.97-25.12 %) and Cis-Pinocamphone (42.87-45.12 %) were identified. Cis-Pinocamphone belonging to bicyclic monoterpene was the predominant constituent of essential oil of H. officinalis L.

According to the results of this study, water deficit stress caused significant phytochemical changes in the H. officinalis L. essential oil. The main constituents of the volatile oils of H. officinalis L. were Sabinene, 3-Carene, Beta-Pinene, Cis- Pinocamphone, Myrtenol, Pinocamphone and Camphor were identified in the H. officinalis essential oil. Generally, Foliar application of chitosan and phenyl alanine significantly increased the monoterpenes compounds in essential oils of Hyssopus officinalis L., so that the content of these compounds and essential oil content in treated plants by organic elicitors 63% was more than the control plants. Finally, the application of chitosan at 0.5 mg.l-1 can be a good strategy to improve physiological and essential oil quantity and quality of H. officinalis L. in cold and semi-arid climates.

The droughts that have occurred in recent years and the lack of water resources require determining the water requirements of agricultural products to manage water resources properly. This research aimed to determine the water requirement of potato crops in different climates of Kermanshah province during the 2021-2022 cropping season. Kermanshah province can be generally classified into three climates: cold, moderate, and hot. The largest areas of potato cultivation in these climates are in Sonqor, Kermanshah, and Qasr-e-Shirin cities, respectively, which were selected as research sites. A total of 35 farms were selected based on farmers' conditions, and field measurements were conducted during the growing season. The water requirement of potatoes was determined using data from the nearest synoptic meteorological stations to the selected farms and the Penman-Monteith method. The results showed that the average length of the potato growing period in Sonqor, Kermanshah, and Qasr-e-Shirin cities was 134, 137, and 148 days, respectively. The average water requirement of potatoes in these cities and the overall average across the three cities were 630, 718, 454, and 605 mm, respectively. The water requirement of potatoes in Qasr-e-Shirin was 25% lower than the average in the three regions of Kermanshah province due to growth during the cooler months of the year.

Considering the limitations that drought stress imposes on plants, use of strategies that control or reduce the adverse effects of drought stress is important. In order to evaluate the effect of methanol foliar applicationspraying on some quantitative and qualitative traits of sugar beet under different conditions of available moisture, a field experiment was conducted for two years in the research field of Islamic Azad University, Karaj Branch, Iran, as a split plot in randomized complete blocks with three replications. The first factor was the irrigation at two levels of S1 (normal irrigation after 40% of available moisture drain) and S2 (irrigation after 70% of available moisture drain) and the second factor was different methanol concentrations with three levels (control), 14 and 28% by volume of methanol) in which  the first factor was assigned in the main plot and the second factor in the sub-plot. The studied traits included root yield, sugar content, sodium, potassium, nitrogen, alkalinity, white sugar content, molasses sugar, sugar yield, and white sugar yield. Results showed that methanol can increase root yield, sugar yield, and white sugar yield regardless of the amount of available moisture; so that the highest root yield was related to the 14 and 28% volume of methanol with 70.12 and 68.87 t ha-1, respectively, which were statistically placed in the same group.

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of Potassium Thiosulfate and Nitrate fertilizers on yield, water use efficiency and control of tuber cracking of potato cultivars. This research was conducted Factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications at the National Potato Research Station located in Ardabil during 2021. The first factor includes Potassium Thiosulfate at three levels (zero, 10 and 20 liters per hectare with irrigation water), the second factor contains Ammonium Nitrate at three levels (based on soil test, 30% and 60% more than soil test) and third factor included four potato cultivars (Agria, Savalan, Anusha and Takta). The results showed that there was a significant difference between the levels of Potassium Thiosulfate fertilizer, cultivars, interaction effect of Potassium Thiosulfate fertilizer and Nitrogen fertilizer and tripartite interaction of Potassium Thiosulfate fertilizer, Nitrogen fertilizer and cultivars in terms of tuber yield, tuber number and weight per plant, plant height, main stem number per plant, water use efficiency, mean of number, length, width, depth and surface of tuber cracking. The highest tuber yield, tuber weight per plant and water use efficiency in the treatment of Potassium Thiosulfate fertilizer 10 liters per hectare and Nitrogen 250 and 328 kg.ha-1 in Takta cultivar, Potassium Thiosulfate fertilizer 10 liters per hectare and Nitrogen fertilizer 400 kg.ha-1 in Savalan cultivar and 20 liters per hectare of Potassium Thiosulfate fertilizer and 328 kg.ha-1 of nitrogen were observed in Savalan cultivar. Based on the results of factor analysis, in the treatment of zero liters per hectare of Potassium Thiosulfate fertilizer and 328 kg.ha-1 of Nitrogen fertilizer of Takta and Savalan cultivars; in the treatment of 10 liters per hectare of Potassium Thiosulfate fertilizer and 250 kg.ha-1of Nitrogen fertilizer in Takta and Agria cultivars, 328 kg.ha-1of Nitrogen fertilizer in Takta cultivar and 400 kg.ha-1 Nitrogen fertilizer in Anusha, Takta and Savalan cultivars and 20 Potassium Thiosulfate fertilizer per hectare and 250 kg.ha-1 Nitrogen fertilizer in Takta cultivar and 328 kg.ha-1 Nitrogen fertilizer in Savalan cultivar had the highest values in terms of tuber yield, tuber number and weight per plant, plant height and water use efficiency. Based on the results of cluster analysis, the fourth group includes treatments of 10 liters per hectare of Potassium Thiosulfate fertilizer and 250 and 328 kg.ha-1 of Nitrogen fertilizer in Takta cultivar and 400 kg.ha-1 of Nitrogen fertilizer in Savalan cultivar and 20 liters per hectare of Potassium Thiosulfate fertilizer in 328 kg.ha-1 of Nitrogen fertilizer in cultivar was in Savalan cultivar and in terms of tuber yield, tuber number and weight per plant, plant height, water use efficiency had the highest amount and without the number of tubers with crack in the plant.

Rainwater storage is very important as a sustainable and practical solution for managing water resources, especially in places with dry and semi-arid conditions such as Iran. This method has been considered as a strategic solution in response to environmental challenges and agricultural and drinking needs. There are various structures for collecting and storing rainwater, the most important of which is the reservoir in Hormozgan. The possibility of using the rainwater stored in this pond to irrigate urban greenery has been the focus and goal of this research. For this purpose, Bibi Pond in Qeshm Island was chosen. For this purpose, the volume of water stored in this pond was calculated. Next, other parks and green spaces around the pond were investigated and their area and details were estimated. The results showed that there are 73 trees and shrubs and about 3400 m2 of green space (grass) in this park and its surrounding area. Estimates showed that the main reservoir of the covered pond and the open side pond are able to store about 400 and 1000 m3 of water, respectively, and this volume of water can supply the water needed for irrigating the green space of the park and the adjacent area in the major part of the year or at least in the stressful time (warm season). This issue will show the unique capacity of such structures for non-drinking purposes in urban environments and therefore should be considered in the planning and management of urban runoff.

Cover plants, among the most commonly used plants in the realm of green spaces, are typically characterized by shallow roots. In this research, a simple and flexible algorithm has been introduced for calculating the basal crop coefficient and evaporation coefficient of shallow-rooted plants without the use of (micro-) lysimeters. The presented algorithm requires measurements of moisture at three depths for short-term calculations and only surface layer moisture monitoring for long-term calculations. Using this algorithm, it is possible to calculate the potential evaporation and transpiration of the plant. Furthermore, the presented algorithm is independent of time steps. To evaluate this algorithm, nine experimental plots were utilized, including six Frankenia plots with full coverage and three bare soil plots during the peak water demand period. All experiments were conducted at the educational site of irrigation systems in the vicinity of the meteorological site of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM). For this purpose, the water content and irrigation of these plots was fulfilled (at most) every 48 hr. The results indicated that the presented algorithm has good capabilities for estimating the basal crop and evaporation coefficients. Additionally, the basal crop coefficient for Frankenia plant was found to be 1, and the evaporation coefficient was 0.58. Therefore, this method can be employed for estimating the water requirements of different plants without using (micro-) lysimeters.

Due to the scarcity of water resources and ever-increasing demand for it, treated wastewater, if meeting agricultural standards, can serve as an alternative or supplementary water source for achieving sustainable agriculture. In this study, considering the water shortage problem and the presence of arable lands in the province of Qazvin, especially in the Buin Zahra region, the potential of using the effluent of Qazvin’s sewage treatment plant in Buin Zahra’s irrigation and drainage network was investigated. In the first phase, the environmental status of the Buin Zahra region was studied, and subsequently, for one year (2019-2020), monthly samples were taken from the raw wastewater inflow and the treated effluent. Physical, chemical, and microbial analyses of these samples were conducted to evaluate the efficiency of the Qazvin sewage treatment plant. Based on the area's cropping pattern and the quality requirements of agricultural products, a plan for the development of the irrigation and drainage network was devised, considering the quantity and quality of the produced effluent. The evaluations included gravitational transfer, significant aquifer depletion, soil characteristics, and the area's cropping pattern. Taking these factors and the social acceptance of the plan into account, the network development was proposed using 20.8 million m3 of effluent annually, covering 2000 ha of Buin Zahra's lands, and the appropriate cropping pattern and irrigation system were determined. Finally, given the importance of health and environmental issues, a comprehensive program for monitoring the quality of various components of the plan, including effluent, soil, agricultural products, and project workers, was prepared and presented to ensure the sustainable and safe use of this resource.

Drought stress is one of the most important factors that reduce the yield of crops in arid and semi-arid regions, including the climatic conditions of Iran. The experiment was conducted as factorial based on completely randomized design with three replications in the research greenhouse of Ilam University in 2020. The experimental factors included irrigation at three levels (100, 60, and 30% of field capacity) and three accessions of camelina (Kermanshah, Sabzevar, and Shahrekord). The results showed that under the irrigation conditions of 30%, seed yield, biological yield, harvest index, plant height, number of capsules per plant, number of seeds per capsule, relative leaf water content, photosynthesis rate, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance and total chlorophyll respectively 69.4, 53.8, 33.9, 44.1, 72.9, 25.6, 43.8, 72.0, 62.9, 56.7, and 61.1% reduction compared to optimal irrigation they found There was no difference observed between the three populations investigated in different irrigation conditions in terms of the investigated traits. In addition, the results showed that the highest amount of camellia seed oil (39%) was obtained in Kermanshah massif under favorable irrigation conditions; which decreased by 40.8% under severe stress of dehydration. In general, it is possible to use camelina Kermanshah under conditions of moderate water stress for oil production.

Determining and analyzing the indicators of water management for the crops of the country plays an important role in the planning of the agricultural sector.This study was accomplished to investigate water management indicators of irrigation systems in Wheat production in the upstream region of Karkheh basin and specifically Honam plain in Lorestan province. 14 wheat farms were selected in the mentioned area and were subjected to agronomic and water monitoring during the cropping season. Wheat applied irrigation water was determined by recording the irrigation schedule and measuring the flow rates. The water requirement of wheat was estimated by Penman-Monteith method and by applying plant coefficients. The yield and water productivity for wheat farms were obtained at the maturity stage. The results of agronomic and water monitoring of selected wheat fields showed that the type of agricultural, irrigation and fertilizer management of farmers played an important role in the amount of grain produced. Irrigation applied water, yield and WP was statistically different during the growth season for the farms. The average yield, the volume of irrigation water, the productivity of the irrigation water and the productivity of the applied water of wheat in the sprinkler irrigation system were equal to 6845 kg/ ha, 2325 m3/ha, 3 and 1.52 kg/ m3, respectively, and in the surface system equal to 5000 kg/ ha, 3237 m3/ha, 1.3 and 0.94 kg/ m3, respectively. The monitoring of the irrigation program in the selected fields showed that the farmers irrigated the mentioned fields on average 41% less than the full irrigation requirement of the plant. One of the important reasons for this is the special attention of farmers in the region to plant crops with high profitability, such as alfalfa and clover, despite the need for more water than wheat.

Medicinal plants are precious resources in Iran’s broad landscape of natural resources, which can play an essential role in health, employment, and non-petroleum export if recognized, cultivated, developed, and exploited scientifically and correctly. Given the limitation of water resources in Iran, the agricultural sector’s use of unconventional water resources has been proposed as a solution. One of these methods is to pass water through a magnetic field before irrigation to improve water productivity. The soil health management is crucial for ensuring ecological and agricultural productions and maintaining plant diversity. The negative impacts of chemical fertilizers forced the agrochemical companies to replace them with Nano-fertilizers in sustainable agricultural systems in order to achieve desirable crop productivity.

With the aim of investigating the effect of foliar application of different nano fertilizers on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of peppermint under different irrigation conditions, an experimental experiment was carried out in an agricultural field in Miandoab city in West Azarbaijan province. The experiment was in the form of split plots based on randomized complete block design in three replications. The main plot was assigned to the irrigation cycle (every 5, 7 and 10 days) and the secondary plot was assigned to foliar spraying treatments (control (no foliar spraying) nano NPK, nano Fe, nano Zn and nano Mn). chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoid, plant height, number of leaves per plant, leaf weight, fresh yield, dry yield, proline content, essential oil percentage and essential oil yield was measured.

Based on the results of data variance analysis, all investigated traits were affected by irrigation, foliar application and the interaction of two treatments at the 1% probability level. The interaction of year with foliar application on dry and wet yield of fodder was significant at the probability level of 1%. The triple interaction of year × irrigation× foliar application and was significant only on proline content at the 1% probability level. The results of the mean comparison of irrigation with foliar application interaction treatments showed the Foliar application of nano Fe under irrigation conditions once every 5 days had the highest content of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids (respectively with an average of 13.43, 3.61 and 4.12 mg g fresh weight-1), plant height (33.92 cm), leaf fresh weight (6.71 g), aerial fresh yield (13121 kg ha-1), aerial dry yield (4600.1 kg ha-1) and the lowest proline content (6.32 mmol g weight-1). Also, the highest percentage of essential oil (0.67%) was attributed to nano Fe foliar spraying under irrigation conditions of 7 days once. In this study, although the highest essential oil yield (24.74 kg ha-1) was assigned to the application of nano Zn under the irrigation once every 5 days’ condition but there was no significant difference between the mentioned treatment and Foliar application nano NPK and nano-Fe in the irrigation treatment of 7 days’ treatments.

It can be stated that the use of NPK and Fe in the form of nanoparticles under mild water stress conditions can improve the economic performance of the product and save water consumption. Also, foliar spraying of this fertilizer it was able to significantly increase the essential oil yield of in this plant under severe water stress conditions. Therefore, foliar spraying of nutritional elements in nano form can be a solution to improve the essential oil yield in peppermint plants under water stress conditions with different intensities.

The castor bean (Ricinus communis L.), is an oilseed of relevant economic and social importance. From its seeds is extracted an oil of excellent properties, having wide use as industrial input and several applications. It is cultivated since the times of the ancient civilizations, the castor bean is a rustic plant, resistant to drought, belonging to the family of Euphorbiaceae, Drought stress, in addition to the negative effect on yield, causes or exacerbates other stresses, especially the stress of nutrient deficiencies for the plant. The purpose of this investigation was to study the effect of irrigation levels and Superabsorbents and biofertilizers on the agronomic properties of castor oil.

This experiment was conducted in West Azarbaijan Agricultural Research and Education Center, Orumieh- Iran in 2018-2021 crop season. A field experiment was carried out by a split-plot design based on a completely randomized block design with three replications. The first factor included Four levels (70, 100, 130, and 160 mm of evaporation pan), in the main plot and Sub-factor includes application of biofertilizer combination in four levels (Azospirillium, Citrobacter, combination of application of Azospirillium in Citrobacter and control without fertilizer) and superabsorbent in two levels (superabsorbent consumption and non-superabsorbent consumption) as factorial were placed in sub-plots. In this study, Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, Cartonoid, Soluble sugar, prolin content, Catalase, Malondialdehyde, and protein content were measured. Also Traits were analyzed by using SAS 9.2 software and means comparison was tested by least significant difference (LSD).

Based on the results of the combined analysis of the variance of the data, there was a significant difference in was observed between the two years in terms of malondialdehyde content. There was a significant difference between the irrigation levels in terms of the effect on all traits of the probability level of 1%. The interaction effect of year and irrigation was significant only on leaf proline content at the level of 1% probability. There was a significant difference between the biofertilizer treatments and the interaction effect of biofertilizer on irrigation and superabsorbent levels in terms of the effect on all traits at the level of one percent probability. The interaction effect of irrigation with superabsorbent on chlorophyll a and b content and soluble sugar content at 1% probability level and on proline content and protein percentage at 5% probability level was significant. Between treatments of biofertilizer with superadd interaction in terms of the effect on chlorophyll b content, soluble sugar, proline content, malondialdehyde content, and protein percentage at the level of 1% percent and in terms of the effect on chlorophyll content, carotenoids and catalase activity in 5% probability level There was a significant difference. The results showed the highest chlorophyll a (23.00 mg g-1) and b content (14.93 mg g-1) as well as carotenoids (30.39 mg g-1) and the lowest amount of soluble sugar (113.33 micromol g-1 fresh weight), catalase (32.97∆A240 mg-1 protein), malondialdehyde (132.44 nmol g-1FW) and protein percentage (4.69%) were assigned to with Citrobacter treatment and irrigation after 70 mm of evaporation. Also, the highest soluble sugar content (131.42 micromol g-1 FW), proline (65.91 micromol g-1 FW), protein (11.48 %) was assigned to the treatment with Azosprilium + Citrobacter and irrigation after 160 mm of evaporation. In this study, the use of superabsorbent in the irrigation treatment of 70 mm evaporation had the highest chlorophyll a (21.29 mg g-1) and b content (12.78 mg g-1) and the lowest amount of soluble sugar (112.50 micromol g-1 FW), proline (26.50 micromol g-1 FW), catalase (35.99 ∆A mg-1 protein) and protein percentage (5.00%), While the highest soluble sugars content (129.12 micromols g-1 FW), proline (58.70 micromols g-1 FW), malondialdehyde (159.71 nmol g-1 FW), and protein (10.37 %), was observed in the treatment of superabsorbent application along with irrigation after 160 mm. In this study, the simultaneous application of superabsorbent and inoculation with azospirlium showed the highest chlorophyll a (22.25 mg g-1), b content (13.79 mg g-1), carotenoid (29.02 mg g-1), protein (7.99%) and the lowest content of catalase enzyme (39.58 ∆A240 mg-1 protein), The highest soluble sugar content (122.88 micromol g-1 FW) and the lowest amount of malondialdehyde (141.82 nmol g-1FW) were detected in the treatment of superabsorbent application with Citrobacter.

In this study, water deficit had an adverse effect on the physiological properties of castor oil. However, the use of biofertilizers and superplasticizers by improving biochemical and antioxidant properties was able to moderate the effect of drought stress on physiological properties and stabilize photosynthetic pigments, and the stability of photosynthetic pigments can improve photosynthetic properties and plant growth under water deficit conditions.

Beans are one of the cheap and important sources of high-quality vegetable protein, which is present in the diet of many people in developing countries and completes the cereal protein. Bean seeds have almost as much energy per unit weight as cereal seeds, and their protein content varies from 20-25% (about twice that of cereal). With 8-14% protein content, bean straw is very suitable fodder for livestock. The production of vegetable protein of grains has several advantages over animal protein in terms of cost and consumer health. Among other features of this plant, we can point to the ability to coexist with air nitrogen-fixing bacteria and their role in productivity, as well as strengthening and improving the physical properties of the soil. Through the ability of nitrogen fixation in these plants, placing them in rotation helps the stability of agricultural systems. At present, the largest area of bean cultivation is in the form of traditional cultivation and bean irrigation is also in the form of flooding. In this production method, more than 15,000 cubic meters of water is consumed. This amount of water consumption, along with the lack of proper productivity of other factors in production, has caused beans to be one of the least efficient products in terms of water consumption efficiency.
 

In order to investigate the effect of four irrigation methods on the damage of weeds, two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) and bacterial blight disease in chitti bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), a research study was conducted in 2022 and 2023 at the Bean Research and Education Center in Khomein, Iran. Despite employing a field with uniform conditions, the study was designed as a multi-location (regional) experiment using a randomized complete block design with three replications. The irrigation methods were categorized into four treatment levels: classical sprinkler irrigation, New-fit sprinkler irrigation, rain flat irrigation, and drip tape irrigation. Different types of chitti bean cultivars with three growth habits were randomly sown in these locations.
 

The experimental results showed that the irrigation method had a significant effect on seed germination percentage and bean plant height. The highest and lowest seed germination percentage and plant height were associated with drip tape irrigation and classical sprinkler irrigation, respectively. Also, the type of irrigation significantly impacted weed density, total biomass of weeds, the intensity of two spotted spider mite infestation, and bacterial blight disease. The highest weed density and biomass were observed in the New-fit and classical sprinkler irrigation methods, and the classical sprinkler irrigation exhibited the highest incidence of bacterial blight disease, too. Conversely, the lowest values for these parameters were obtained with the drip tape irrigation method. However, the highest damage caused by two spotted spider mite was observed in the drip tape irrigation method, while the lowest damage by two spotted spider mite was present in the classical sprinkler irrigation method. Furthermore, both irrigation method and bean cultivar significantly affected bean grain yield. The highest grain yield (293.6 g.m-2) was associated with drip tape irrigation, while the lowest yield (225.4 g.m-2) was observed in the classical sprinkler irrigation treatment. Among the different bean cultivars, the highest grain yield (274.1 g.m-2) was obtained from the Kousha cultivar. One of the important solutions in achieving the goals of reducing water consumption and increasing the efficiency of water consumption in bean cultivation is the implementation of pressurized irrigation instead of conventional cultivation. Pressure irrigation methods in planting beans reduce water consumption to a great extent and increase the efficiency of water consumption. The two main methods of irrigation under pressure in the country are the drip tape method and the fixed classical sprinkler with a movable sprinkler, each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages. In addition to the positive aspects of increasing yield, drip tape irrigation method in bean planting will help to further reduce water consumption.
 

In general, the experiment results demonstrated that drip tape irrigation not only increased seed germination percentage and plant height in different bean cultivars, but also led to higher grain yield compared to other irrigation methods. Additionally, the presence of weeds and bacterial blight disease were reduced in the drip tape irrigation method.

Landfill leachate, a liquid resulting from waste decomposition, contains nutrients like ammoniacal-N, Na, K, and organic matter. Biological treatments effectively remove degradable organics from young landfill leachate, but aged leachate with recalcitrant organics requires combined physical-chemical and biological methods or advanced technologies, leading to higher treatment costs. Even after treatment, leachate may not meet environmental standards for release. In arid and semi-arid regions with water scarcity and low soil organic matter, leachate application to soil presents a potential solution. Soil’s properties enable it to retain and degrade pollutants while utilizing leachate’s nutrients to enhance fertility and crop growth. However, leachate composition and application rates are critical factors due to potential negative impacts from total nitrogen, salinity, and heavy metals. Alkaline pH in aged leachate reduces heavy metal contamination risk. Detailed leachate characterization before soil application is crucial to prevent environmental and functional problems. This review examines existing research on leachate irrigation’s effects on soil properties and plant nutrition, contributing to sustainable leachate management and agricultural practices in water-limited regions. Additionally, the review explores potential risks associated with leachate irrigation, including soil salinization, heavy metal accumulation, and groundwater contamination. By understanding both the benefits and drawbacks, informed decisions can be made regarding the suitability and implementation of leachate irrigation in specific contexts.

To carry out this study, keywords such as "Landfill leachate", "Composition of landfill leachate" and "Landfill leachate irrigation" were searched in the Web of Science, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and SID databases. For these keywords, 205 articles were found from 1989 to 2023. After the screening, quality review, and removal of repetitive and unrelated articles, 110 relevant articles were used. The main criterion for selecting articles was the effects of landfill leachate irrigation on the various properties of soil, and the nutrition of different plant species. The quality of the articles was evaluated through the Scimago Journal Rank (SJR) index, the citation, the Impact Factor, and the source normalized impact per paper (SNIP) index.

Landfill leachate presents a complex environmental challenge due to its potential for both soil contamination and enrichment. Leachate's xenobiotic and heavy metal components can induce soil contamination, altering the natural environment. Studies have documented reduced hydraulic conductivity, increased gas production, and altered microbial communities, ultimately impacting soil productivity.  Leachate percolation can also modify physicochemical characteristics, including reduced microbial biomass, phosphorus-fixing capacity, and pH shifts, depending on waste composition. Conversely, research highlights the potential benefits of leachate application in arid and semi-arid regions facing water scarcity and low soil organic matter. Leachate can contribute to the increased organic content, improved soil structure, and regulated pH, enhancing soil fertility and crop productivity.  The presence of macro and micro-nutrients such as Fe, Mn, N, P, and Zn further supports leachate's potential as a fertilizer. However, concerns remain regarding inhibitory chemicals in leachate and their potential detrimental effects on plant growth and yield. Studies report instances of leaf injury, reduced yield, and poor survival rates in certain plant species.  In contrast, research demonstrates the positive effects of diluted or low-strength leachate application, stimulating plant growth and enhancing yield, particularly for Brassica species and tree species like Acacia confusa, Leucaena leptocephali, and Eucalyptus tortellini. These contradictory findings underscore the intricate interplay of factors influencing leachate irrigation outcomes. Soil characteristics, plant species, leachate source and composition, application methods, and their interactions all play significant roles in determining the success or failure of leachate irrigation.

Landfill leachate, characterized by its elevated nitrogen and nutrient levels, presents a potential alternative water and fertilizer source for agricultural practices, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions facing water scarcity. However, responsible leachate utilization necessitates a comprehensive approach that balances maximizing benefits with minimizing environmental risks. Prior to agricultural application, detailed leachate characterization is crucial to determine its precise composition and suitability for irrigation. This includes quantifying heavy metal concentrations, salinity levels, and the presence of potentially toxic organic compounds.  Concurrent plant selection is equally important, prioritizing species with demonstrated tolerance to leachate constituents. Given the potential for salinity and heavy metal accumulation, continuous application of raw leachate, especially for sensitive crops, should be avoided. Implementing alternating irrigation regimes with conventional water sources can mitigate these risks while providing essential nutrients for plant growth.  Monitoring soil health indicators, including pH, organic matter content, and microbial activity, is vital to assess long-term impacts and implement necessary soil amendments. Determining optimal leachate application rates requires a multifaceted approach that considers plant-specific nitrogen requirements, leachate toxicity levels, and soil infiltration capacity.  This ensures adequate nutrient supply without exceeding the assimilative capacity of plants and soil, preventing environmental contamination. Further research is needed to investigate the long-term impacts of leachate irrigation on soil health, crop quality, and potential groundwater contamination. Developing standardized guidelines for leachate treatment and application, tailored to specific regional contexts and crop types, is crucial for promoting sustainable and responsible leachate utilization in agriculture.