World risk society, reconfiguration of religion, and transnational religious organizations

This scholarly article explores the reconfiguration of religion and religious organizations within the framework of the world risk society. The emergence and proliferation of global risks have presented significant challenges to social structures and constructions. These risks, unlike those caused by natural forces or external factors, arise as unintended consequences and side effects of centuries of human attempts to rationalize, control, and determine the material world through science, technology, and rational institutions. Paradoxically, the very institutions once celebrated as drivers of progress and prosperity have now become major sources of threats and risks. The dominance of risks on a global scale has initiated a profound transformation, leading to a transition into a realm of indeterminacy, uncertainty, and fluidity. Consequently, numerous social institutions are undergoing metamorphosis, setting the stage for the reconfiguration of societies.  To accomplish the central goal of this research, i.e. the role of religion in the global risk society, a qualitative methodology, combined with document and library review, has been systematically employed. This methodological choice allows for a comprehensive exploration of the reconfiguration of religion in the context of the global risk society. The research methodology encompasses theoretical verifications, extensive library studies, analysis of available statistics and documents, in-depth examination of concrete cases, and a thorough review of existing studies. The main aim of this article is carried out in the form of addressing the following four central questions:1. What kind of transformation and challenges have social institutions encountered in the contemporary world, particularly under the influence of the global risk society?2. How can the reconfiguration of religion in the global risk society be investigated and understood? 3. What are the transformations and manifestations of religion in the global risk society? 4. What are the effects of the cosmopolitanization of risks on transnational religious organizations in the contemporary world?Addressing these questions will be done in the form of the following structure: Firstly, the general coordinates, characteristics, and fundamental forces of the global risk society are described. Next, the article evaluates the role of religion in relation to one of the most significant forces of this society, namely the distribution of the risks. Concrete examples are then examined to analyze the process of transnationalization of religion, the expansion of transnational religious organizations, the cosmopolitanization of the world, and their consequences.  This article draws on the concept of the world risk society to shed light on the cognitive dynamics involved in understanding risk determination in the contemporary world. The article posits that the new world order is shaped by the avoidance and distribution of negative outcomes, i.e. bads, rather than the accumulation of conceived goods. It identifies three main categories of risk—environmental, technological, and societal risks—and underscores their critical role in the emergence of the world risk society. Furthermore, the article explores the world risk theory as a social theory of modernization, emphasizing the influence of organizational types, the modern division of labor, and scientific and technological engagements with nature as primary sources of global risks in the present era. The impact of the rise of the world risk society on religion is examined in the third section of the article. This exploration focuses on the dominant force of risk society—the distribution and globalization of risks. The article argues that the ascendancy of risks triggers various and sometimes contradictory responses from different religions, ranging from resistance, innovation, criticism, and retreat to destruction, reconstruction, and revival. The indeterminacy and fluidity induced by the world risk society have led to the emergence of diverse religious configurations across different times and spaces. The article investigates the emergence of religious fundamentalism in the context of the world risk society and analyzes the influence of individualization and globalization of risks on religious configurations, presenting specific examples. Transnationalization is identified as a key manifestation of religious reconfiguration in the world risk society. The study provides empirical and concrete examples to analyze the impacts and manifestations of this process on religious configurations.   In conclusion, this article argues that the emergence and restructuring of transnational religious organizations represent a significant aspect of the reconfiguration of religion in the world risk society. The unique characteristics of these organizations in the context of globalized risks are outlined, and their global operations in various domains are introduced. The article examines the different elements and parameters of these organizations, including transnational networks, global governance structures, technological utilization, religious practices and beliefs, human resources, financial networks, communication infrastructures, leadership structures, and membership regimes. Through the application of criteria such as geographical reach, membership and support base, ideology and belief system, organizational structure, external relations, engagement with global risks, and use of technology, a comprehensive classification of transnational religious organizations in the world risk society is presented, accompanied by empirical examples. Finally, the article highlights the exponential growth of transnational cyber religious organizations, attributing it to the globalization of risks, reconfiguration of religion, and expansion of cyber communities. The salient features of these organizations and communities are delineated, and significant examples are introduced.