Advancements and Challenges in 3D Printing of Electroconductive Hydrogels for Cardiovascular Bioprinting

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the most prevalent cause of fatalities worldwide, affecting both cardiac and vascular tissues. Tissue engineering is a promising treatment alternative for people with end-stage CVDs; however, it has disadvantages such as poor scaffold design control and insufficient vascularization. 3D bioprinting, a recent advancement, has overcome these restrictions by creating layer-by-layer structures such as organs, scaffolds, and blood vessels. This method enables precise control over cell distribution, architectural structure, and compositional correction. Furthermore, since cardiac tissue is electroactive, incorporating electroconductive nanomaterials into the scaffold facilitates intracellular communication, mimics the heart's biochemical and biomechanical microenvironment, and prevents arrhythmia in the heart. In addition, these electroconductive materials can improve the quality of 3D-printed scaffolds. In this study, we will review the different techniques of 3D printing hydrogels after evaluating the many types of hydrogels employed for cardiac tissue engineering (CTE). Then, we will discuss the influence of incorporating electroconductive fillers into hydrogels on printed scaffold quality. Finally, we will briefly discuss the challenges and potentials.