An Account of Governance in the Political Thought of Feyz Kashani and Moqaddas Ardebili

This study aims to understand the perspectives of Feyz Kashani and Moqaddas Ardebili on governance by utilizing the theoretical model of End-Goal and Legitimacy and employing an interpretative method. Regarding the purpose of governance, Feyz Kashani believed in preserving the essential social order of human beings, ensuring people's livelihood, and aligning secular politics with religious governance. In contrast, Moqaddas Ardebili had no religious, political, or social expectations from governments. Regarding the identity of the ruler, Feyz Kashani, considering the necessity of maintaining order and unity among Muslims, promoting religion, and upholding divine symbols (the functional role of governance), recognized the legitimacy of the Safavid government. Conversely, Moqaddas Ardebili believed that no government holds legitimacy during the occultation period, considering all monarchs to be inherently oppressive and tyrannical. Regarding the limitations on the exercise of power, Feyz Kashani emphasized customary practices aligned with religious law, defining specific duties for Safavid rulers, and active engagement in governance. In contrast, Moqaddas Ardebili proposed two principles—consultation (shura) and enjoining good and forbidding evil (amr bi al-ma'ruf wa nahy 'an al-munkar)—as well as setting specific governmental duties (pursuit of justice and eliminating oppression) as constraints on any ruling authority. Regarding the right to oppose governance, Feyz Kashani opposed any reformist or radical actions by the people against rulers, advocating for obedience to monarchs. In contrast, Moqaddas Ardebili encouraged passive resistance against the Safavid government due to its oppressive nature. However, he also stated that even affection for a non-Muslim ruler is permissible if it serves the interests of protecting and promoting Islam (Shi'a teachings) and safeguarding Muslims.