This research was aimed to modeling the height and distance of sand dunes in central deserts of Iran (Kashan Erg and Jen Erg) as well as their classification. Results of identifying sand dunes in the study areas showed that there were considerable variations in formation of sand dunes in central deserts of Iran. Quantitative modeling of height based on DEM (80 × 80m) showed that the average height of sand dunes in Kashen Erg and Jen Erg was 35m and 6.84m, respectively. The reduced height in Jen Reg was due to the 37% frequency of sand dunes area and regardless of these dunes, the average height was calculated to be 8.63 m in Jen Reg, of which 90% was in a height class less than 20 m. On the other hand, the frequency percentage variation of sand dunes height classes is higher in Kashan Erg, so that over 80% of Kashan Erg is in a height class less than 50m, while 87% of Jen Erg is in a height class less than 10m. In Kashan Erg, the height of sand dunes is low and gradually increases in the center of Erg, reaching to the highest height of sand dunes. Quantitative modeling of relations between the height and distance of dunes in Jen Erg indicated that the sand dunes activity was restricted to the upper part of the dunes. In Kashan ERG, the comparison of fixed, linear and compound dunes showed that the fixed dunes would be formed at a closer distance as compared with two other types.

Rayen and Bam citadels, dating back to ancient civilization from the Sassanid period, has a favorable commercial position due to its location at the intersection of the North to the South of Khorasan and Govashir of Kerman to Bandar Abbas and the west to east of Fars to Baluchistan. Its geography and position on the route of the above-mentioned communication way has always been threatened and invaded by various ethnic groups and governments; the Kerman province during the Islamic period has been the base of riot clashes with the government forces, and construction of many of the Kermans’ citadels and castles had a security and defense function. Two citadels of the Rayen and Bam, from the Sassanid to Qajar era, have played an important role in the life of the communities and the preservation of security in the Kerman area. The main question is, what are the similarities and differences of the defense structures of these citadels from a security perspective? The present study want to identify the security defenses of the two Rayen and Bam citadel in Kerman province and achieve structural defensive patterns and ways to connect, share and differentiate them. The information of this paper was collected through library (documentary) methods, visual observation and comparison of the findings and the research was conducted using an adaptive-analytical method. The presence of a fence, ruler, watchdog, as well as crossed stands and machicolation indicate the military and security function of the two citadels. One can hypothesize that structure of the Rayen defense fortifications is influenced by the Bam Citadel. The results of this study indicate that due to the location of these citadels in the communication paths of Khorasan, Sistan, the center of Iran, these citadels and defense fortifications have been formed in these two regions.

Wind erosion is one of the most important natural processes in arid and semi-arid areas, occurring as a result of erosive winds. Wind speed, frequency and duration should be considered in studies related to wind erosion. Kashan Erg is one of the most important sand dunes complexes in Iran. To study the relationship between the wind characteristics (Uni- directional index, windness index, wind duration and frequency) with Erg morphology and also study the changes of sand flow rate in various regions, anemometers data were obtained from synoptic stations of Kashan, Ardestan, Jangalbani Badrod, Garmsar and Qom. Then, the interpolation map of sand transport and interpolation map of average and maximum wind in Kashan Erg were drawn using GIS software. Finally, the analysis results showed that the interpolation map of sand transport corroborated the results obtained from interpolation map of average wind, because sand transport rate and average wind speed were reduced from east to west of the Erg. Therefore, it is found that wind frequency and duration have more important role in the sand transport and morphology of the study area as compared with the wind speed. In addition, the comparison of Erg morphology and anemometer results in different stations showed that the spring and summer winds had the highest role in the Erg morphology.

Qajar era is the period of fundamental changes and the introduction of new urban concepts. Squares, a type of urban space, were the subject of some of these changes. This article focuses on four main Qajar capital squares (Mashgh, Arg, Toupkhaneh, Sabzi-meidan) in their urban context around the royal citadel, aiming to answer these questions: 1-What changes in these squares over time have affected the citadel? 2-what is the role of the relationship between these squares and their spatial and functional features in other developments? Using the interpretive-historical method and primary and secondary sources as well as visual documents, the initial findings were collected, and logical reasoning of the findings, drawing diagrams, and reproduction of some maps showed that developments of Arg, Mashgh, and Sabzi-meidan squares in Naseri period (before the city expansion) and the improvement of their physical and functional condition led to the birth of squares with specific design and function in the north and south of the royal citadel; previously, these spaces were chaotic with multiple functions. Also, the changes in Arg Square and its transformation into Golshan Garden led to the birth of Toupkhaneh Square in the north of the citadel and the formation of the fourth square around this common urban context. Secondly, these four squares have been the precondition for the emergence of another: first Sabzi-meidan, then Arg, then Mashgh, and finally Toupkhaneh square were formed. On the other hand, the function and location of the squares have been in harmony with each other.

Historical city of Zahedan-Kohne is located at km20 of south east of Zabol, and at the north part of Zahak basin in Sistan. This city is comprised of 5 (five) separate parts named Ghale, Arg Aval or Arg Zirin, Arg Dovom or Arg foroudin, Sharestan and Rabath. Historical city of Zahedan-e-kohne at its life and prosperity time was considered as one of the largest cities of Iran, and was the centre of Sistan in the centuries of 5 up to 9 Hejri Gamari, but there is no accurate information about the exact area of this important city of Sistan because the existing man made features and monuments have been destroyed with passing the time and intervention of different natural and human factors, but the total area of Ghale,Arg and Sharestan reaches to 3,248,272 m 2. The results of field studies n this city which are performed during 2002-2007 by the writers of this study, clearly confirms that designers, city developers and architectures of historical city of Zahedan-e-Kohne before constructing the city and the buildings inside it, have dominated firstly on the natural geography of the area through performing scientific and professional studies, and considering all the related aspects have established a city which had comfort and peace for his residents due to having all climatic provisions and environmental adaptation.

In the history of Iranian territory, attention towards defensive fortifications has always ambitiously been concerned as an important factor for survival of the residential and governmental centers. Detailed and precise focusing on each of these defensive structures will provide useful information on the characteristics of this type of military architecture. An MW 6.5 earthquake devastated the town of Bam in southeast Iran on 26 December 2003. After the Bam earthquake, attentions have been attracted towards Arg-e-Bam complex which had been extensively damaged, and methodical studies were initiated in various parts of this world heritage site. The citadel is located on the northeast of Bam, a dependency of Kerman province located 193 kilometers southeast of Kerman (the province center) and 1257 kilometers southeast of Tehran. The citadel consists of two main areas, the ruler’s seat and the commoners’ area, which are separated by walls and watchtowers. Another wall, lined by a moat, runs approximately 2,000 meters around this ensemble, separating it from the surrounding fields. Hence, the present study was being carried out from 2005 to 2008, and aimed at introducing and recognizing the main structure of Arg-e-Bam defense system. In this research which has based on a scientific viewpoint and a logical analysis focusing on findings, elements observations and architectural bodies obtained from a part of the fence between towers (8) and (9) on the southern (main) front up to reaching the ditch and also from new-found parts of the fence body, it has been shown that the image formed in pictures, reports and public opinion about the nature of Bam citadel defensive structure was actually a part of it, as a volume of accumulated historical debris caused by demolitions and reconstructions during the past centuries, which can be seen as a ramp adjacent to the fence up to reaching the ditch and around all sides of the citadel. Understanding the physical situation and constituting layers of this massive defensive structure at the corner of Lut Desert will be useful for researchers not only to know about the architectural aspects, but also to better understand the socio-political conditions of governmental structures during different historical periods in this area. According to the revision of Arg-e-Bam defensive fortifications based on the field studies and explorations, new-found parts include an extensive wall located between the ditch and the fence wall with a height of 2.7 m, which is larger than the human size, and the ramp which is elevated from the top of this wall to fence base, expressing its defensive role as an obstacle preventing the invaders from easy access to the fence side, and stressing on its role as an strengthening element for retrofitting the citadel defensive wall structure from the structural engineering viewpoint. Evaluating the natural ground bed of the area and the artificial effects created by human activities on the area, detailed studying and scientific perceptions about the manner of positioning and distribution of various defensive elements relative to each other, and detecting the level differences between Sharestan (public stand) bed, fence and fortifications, ditch and the natural ground bed around the complex indicate that there have been extensive changes in the complex area in order to construct the spaces and architectural body of Arg-e-Bam complex as a world heritage site. Findings have suggested the use of ground bed soil as brick and clay materials for the construction of Bam structures and its architectural components. This study has been accompanied with field exploration, mapping and analysis of findings, along with a reviewing of the books and documents available on Bam and defensive fortifications and structures, and with the guidance given by experts.

Zandieh is a short period in Iranian history (1751-1794 AD) which influence on Qajar art (1794-1925 AD) has always been discussed. The period of Karim-Khan Zand (1751-1779 A.D) is considered as one of the three stages of the evolution and development of Iranian art after the fall of the Safavids, which is a combination of a kind of "realism" and "ancientism," but both in the folk tradition, with the suspension fluctuated between the return to royal traditions and the pursuit of European arts. However, Zandieh-era tileworks have not been sufficiently investigated. Tileworks in Zand dynasty are limited, and at the same time, the Arg or Citadel of the Karim-Khan Zand is also considered to be most widely made of bricks, which has few tileworks. Much of the research in this area has focused on brick ornamentation and paintings. Therefore, case studies in identifying each part of the original Zandieh-era tilework can be useful in seeking a comprehensive understanding of Zand art. The current research could be evaluated in this context. Except for a number of mosaics and arabesque motifs in tileworks, there were three lost tileworks located at the entrance to the Arg in the courtyard at the Eastern side, which have been lost for decades and for some unknown reasons. The middle tilework is larger and its shape is a square with an approximate size of 2.70 m. The two northern and southern tileworks have similar proportions and an approximate size of 1.70 at 2.70 m. The geometric analysis of the components of these three tiles reflects the pivotal geometry of the motifs. Each of these three constituents has only a relative axial symmetry and is, at the same time, in perfect alignment with the central tile of the largest size. The purpose of the current research is to recognize the "scheme" and the "content" of these tileworks, and to study similar examples and their impact on the correct understanding of the geometry and architecture of the citadel. The research method is an interpretive-historical approach that uses analytical and deductive data such as historical photographs, field observations, writings by historians and tourists. In the first step, by studying the artistic features of the Zandieh-era works, the basic principles necessary for understanding the notions of Zand art are underlined, with emphasis on tile paintings. In the second step, after the dating of the tilework, its design has been compared to similar examples and its content has been adapted to the Zand art history. At the end and in the third step, analyzing its composition, its role in the spatial structure of the citadel in a descriptive-analytical approach is discussed. The findings of this study showed that these tileworks are a reflection of the ordinary architecture of the Arg; the representational content of these three tileworks shows the presence of servants with floral dresses, long clothes and small hats that represent Zand's traditional dress and serve with numerous dishes of fruit, cup and pitcher. The natural landscape, in contrast to the steady state of the Arg, represents the dynamic nature and the life of the citadel. Due to reasons such as lack of sufficient land for construction, the complexity of the functions resulting from the creation of a residential space along with the service sectors such as the bath and the spaces of servants and need for security, the Arg developed a simple courtyard house to fit within the shape of an inland city citadel. The aesthetics of the plan are based on the four-Ivan pattern of the Safavid era, and the combination of the two scales of the house and the citadel have led to the removal of the Ivan of the eastern side for a variety of reasons. This fault has been retrieved by the imitation of the Arg architecture (including the two-column Ivan, the upper niche of the two-chambered rooms, the paintings with the flower pattern, etc.), and in particular the representation of the main Ivan (the king's), a two-dimensional image of the Ivan and its components have compensated the architectural defects. The geometric analysis of the constituents of these three tileworks shows the remarkable geometry in the layout of the motifs. Each of the three alone has relative axial symmetry and is in complete symmetry with the large central tile. In addition to their artistic and aesthetic role in creating diversity on the inner eastern wall of the Arg and creating the focal point of the longitudinal axis of the Arg from the Ivan to the entrance, the following could also be pointed out: a) Tileworks as a reflection of the daily servants of the Arg; (b) Tileworks as a two-dimensional mirror against the architectural three-dimensional elements; (c) Tileworks as an ideal world against the real world of Arg; and (d) Tileworks as aesthetic concept of Qajar local governors in the administrative buildings and houses.

The issue of cultural heritage conservation in Soltaniyeh town is of specific significance because of the location of the world heritage of Soltaniyeh dome and citadel” in that city. This article is an attempt to learn about the social conflicts in the conservation of Soltaniyeh dome and citadel. This research has been conducted by using the field study related to the subject. The theoretic framework of the research is based on extending social psychosocial topics to the public conservation of architectural cultural heritage. The results of the studies indicate a set of factors have been effective in the domain of architectural cultural heritage in this city. Some of the most important of the factors include: Lack of interconnection between the principles and fundamentals of “cultural heritage” and “public demands”، the ownership of about 10 hectares in Soltaniyeh small town as the premise of dome and its surrounding citadel، discordant and sectional treatments in the executive process of owned places، disorder in redevelopment of the site round the dome and other historical and cultural limits of the city، the conflict of the social groups working in the dome premise limit and citadel with the administrative system related to the conservation.

The Present study has evaluated the role of direction of wind on the sand dune morphology in Jen erg. To reach this goal, it used data of wind from synoptic stations around erg by wind rose in order to specify dominant wind direction and sand rose to find the direction of transfer of sand respectively by WR-plot and Sand rose graph software. Then by analyzing Aerial photos, Google earth satellite images and Field visit in addition to determining the exact geographical boundary of the erg, various types of Sand dunes in erg determined and morphological map of erg prepared. Results have shown that the direction of Erosive winds that are effective in creating sand dunes and the direction of transfer of sand over region were not the same in result we can separate Jen erg to two distinct area, long length Strings in shape of a collected silk in the Northern half, which is according to the direction of the Northeast Southwest and network dunes and star dunes in South area of erg which its morphology is affected by both multi wind in North West, west, East, and topographical factors.

Earthquake in 26th of December 2003 devastated the city of Bam and its magnificent Arg [citadel] and turned it to ruins. The Arg was surviving for centuries in this location. Some time it was more inhabited and once abandoned. During the past decades the Arg gradually becomes well known and it finds a general popularity over the past decade since the Iranian society recognizes it thanks to the efforts of the erudite scholars. This comprehensive recognition especially in the field of the materials is more important for the interventions since it supports any correct and successful conservation measure. Eventually, the structure of the Arg has been composed of several architectural layers constructed over each other. A considerable share of these structures includes repairs and infill constructions created upon the base of archaeological layers over the centuries. However, the recent researches discovered several structural weaknesses in most of the adobes used in Arg-e Bam. Nevertheless, the huge adobes which have been used in the surrounding wall, some parts of the governors sector, and a few significant buildings in the public sector, have a considerable quality and more attention has been paid in their production. Occasionally, weak architectural composition has intensified the structural weakness of the adobes. Accordingly, usage of the same adobe composition with the similar technique in restoration will follow an understandable concern and it sounds a critical measure. Neglecting this important element will direct the Arg in to the similar harsh experience of the past. According to the experiences concerning the structural behavior of the materials used in the Bam citadel, it is certain that any restoration and conservation measure by the same material would not result in any success. If no improvement is conducted on the weaknesses of such a fragile material, then the restoration exercises will encounter major challenges. Having referred to the results of the researches performed of the historical adobes of the Bam citadel, the importance and necessity of such improvement will become more apparent. Arg-e Bam has been frequently invaded the armies and tribes during its long life and the inhabitants had a very limited time for fixing the damaged parts. Consequently, adequate attention has not been paid on the quality of some of the adobes. This research with a functional approach is looking for recognition of the structural properties of the adobes used in the site as well as their strengths and weaknesses. In the frame of inductive reasoning (looking from detail to the whole), based on the experimental system with a compound method (library, laboratory, site investigations), this research tries to respond to the main question that is quiddity of the factors affecting the structure and the material behavior under the tensions as well as improvement and resolving the known weaknesses. Thus, the results of the researches concerning the structural characters of the adobes of the Bam citadel will help us in achieving the materials without or at least with minimum weaknesses comparing to the prior adobes in order to be used for the more reliable restorations. One may even think about production of the new adobes with boosted mechanical behavior. According to our knowledge about the condition of the earthen materials of the Bam citadel, it is possible to improve the characteristics of the new adobes and earthen mortars for the restoration measures by innovations in the production process. This is actually the hypothesis of the research.