One fundamental inquiry in political and legal discourse revolves around the essence of government, its duties, and the extent of its responsibilities. Throughout history, this question has been posed in various forms, evolving with the demands of different eras and civilizations. Particularly during the Iranian Constitutional Movement, the issue gained significant traction, prompting rigorous debate among intellectuals and scholars. This study delves into governmental obligations through the lens of a Constitutional Shiite jurist of that era, Muhammad Ismaʿil Gharavi Mahallati. Employing a descriptive-analytical approach, the research examines Mahallati's perspectives on various forms of monarchy, governmental obligations as outlined by figures such as Khorasani and Naini, and specifically, governmental duties according to Mahallati himself. It concludes that Mahallati espouses the principles of Constitutionalism, which advocate for the limitation of absolute power. He delineates seven primary obligations of government: tax collection, provision of military forces, maintenance of domestic security, judicial responsibilities, promotion of public welfare and utilities, safeguarding borders, and support for expatriate Iranians. Furthermore, the study elucidates Mahallati's proposed solutions after explicating his stance on these seven obligations.

Industries are now under high pressure to manufacture environmental-friendly products and collect the end-of-life products due to governmental obligations, social responsibilities, environmental issues, and increasing awareness of consumers. Reverse supply chain (logistics) problems deal with returning s and handling the end-of-life products. Accordingly, used products should dispose, recycle or recover efficiently. Managing of reverse supply chains confronts with higher degree of uncertainty and dynamism compared to forward chain. Therefore, capacity planning becomes more important to prevent excess capacity or penalties resulting from the loss of second-hand products. To this aim, a system dynamics approach is used in this paper to model the capacity planning Decisions in a lead-acid battery closed-loop supply chain. The product exchange policy and effect of green image on the supply chain performance are also considered in the developed model. The proposed model is implemented by Vensim software and the effect of various policies is simulated and analyzed.

Legal alms or Zakāt is one of the financial obligations that is ordained not only in Islam but also in other religions. The purpose behind this financial obligation is to purify the soul, purify the property and bless it, and to fill the economic gaps of the society. In the numerous Meccan and Medinan verses, this financial obligation is ordained, but like many other Qur’anic obligations, the order of revelations of the verses of the QurÞān exerts its effect on the type of ruling, subject, and the way or the ways in which legal alms are cinsumed , and therefore, this article is intended to examine the evolution of and change in the ruling, topic, and the way zakāt  is consumed drawing upon the content analysis method. The findings of this study show that zakāt was obligatory on Muslims in Mecca, and the objects of legal alms were not restricted to the so-called nine jurisprudential cases, but the underlying principle was to meet the needs of the needy by its payment . For, at that time, most of the Muslims were the poor, the slaves and the needy. In addition, this financial obligation was not limited to zakāt, but in the QurÞān, God also ordained such things as fair loan (free loan without taking usury), spending in Allah’s way (infāq), feeding orphans and the poor, and made mention of the ‘recognised right, ‘the right to harvest’, and ‘to supply neighbourly needs’. For this reason, the word (zakāt) is used less in the early revealed Surahs and similar words are used istead to refer to this financial obligation, but with the passage of time and the increase in the population of Muslims and the strengthening of their social ties, the verses in which specifically zakāt is ordained has increased in number. In the early days of Islam, among other financial duties, zakāt was obligatory in general and its consumption was at the discretion of the payers, but in Madina and with the discretion of the Prophet Muhammad, the objects of legal alms were reduced and conditions were established for its obligation, payment and consumptions.

In recent years, small satellites have brought many non-governmental actors into outer space domain because of many advantages they offer in comparison with large satellites. The activities of small satellites, like any space activity, are high-risk and may cause damage. Under the existing space treaties, it is States that are held liable if the space activities of private companies launching small satellites cause damage. The basis is Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty. According to this article, member States have an international responsibility for activities of non-governmental entities in the outer space. The appropriate State shall guarantee compliance of activities carried out with the provisions of the Treaty, authorize and continuously supervise national space activities. By collecting library data and descriptive-analytical method, this research tries to determine the State's obligations towards the activities of private companies of small satellites. For this purpose, Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty and the manner of fulfilling mentioned obligations are examined in the national space Legislations of the United States, Belgium, the Netherlands, Austria, as well as the regulations of the Islamic Republic of Iran.

The development and the sublimity of human societies is due to the laws governing them and the way these laws are enacted. The Islamic legislative system has made various laws and issued different commands and rules for the persons competent to undertake religious obligations (mukallaf), depending on their different physical and mental states. Therefore, in this legislative system of Islam, there is never a legal impasse or deadlock. Among the Islamic rules which play a significant role in removing the social obstacles and paving the ground for running a government efficiently are the governmental and administrative laws including the decisions or judgments made by the legal guardian in the light of codes of the Law as the exigency of time and interests demands. A governmental law can be studied in many respects. In this article, after an introduction in which the meaning of a governmental law is given, the criteria and the foundations of issuing the governmental law have been studied. The article comes to the conclusion that the observance of general laws of Islam and the objectives, careful consideration for interests and the relationship between the law and the object of the law constitute an important foundation for issuing a governmental law by a Muslim ruler.

Jurisdictions are necessary for running the affairs of Islamic society. One of these jurisdictions is the making of governmental judgements.The key question which arises about the Islamic system is: What are the rules and regulations for making governmental judgements?Govermental judgements, often termed Walā’i judgements, are separate from Shar‘i injunctions in as far as the side or authority which issues them is concerned, but in as far as their contents are concerned, different relationships are detectable between them.Governmental or Walā’i judgements, like Shar‘i injunctions, are of two types. Some fall in the province of obligatory judgements and some fall in the province of positive obligations.This article is concerned with the rules and regulations for making obligatory governmental judgements by a ruler. Making a distinction between “common rules” and “the rules for urgent judgements”, the author observes that six components are connected to common judgements and three rules are connected to urgent judgements

Despite its advantages, expansion of information and communication technologies (ICTs), have increasingly put citizens at the risk of violating their information privacy by governmental or non-governmental organizations. In this article, the legislations advocating information privacy in Iran and selected countries have been comparatively studied and some solutions have been proposed for decreasing the existing gap between Iran and international standards.
This article draws on qualitative method, including documentary study, content analysis (with open and axial coding), and comparative study. Statistical population of this study includes 58 countries with information privacy act which 6 countries were selected (Republic of Korea, England, France, Canada, Italy and Ireland) as pioneer countries.The framework for comparative study has 7 dimensions: principles of collection, use, retention and disclosure of data, data subject rights, controller responsibilities and principles of data subject’s accessing to data. According to this study, information privacy protection status in Iran is far from selected countries and international standards.
Based on this study, there are two main gaps in protecting citizens’ information privacy in Iran: legislative and supervisory gaps. Iran is far from leading countries in terms of existence of information privacy protection legislation. Leading countries legislations support citizens’ general and sensitive personal data. But Iranian legislations only support the latter one (sensitive personal data) on a limited basis. of 124 identified obligations for protecting information privacy, 81 obligations have been repeated in at least four of six selected countries. There are only 13 of these obligations in Iranian legislations. It seems that due to supervisory gap in Iran, execution of these 13 obligations confronts some problems. It is hoped that the proposed principles in this study could pave a way for enacting rules for protecting information privacy in Iran.

Water plays a vital role in human life, affecting not only the functioning of the body but also other human rights. For this reason, in recent decades, international bodies, including the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights by approving Comment No. 15, have identified the access to water as a human right. But it is not easy to enjoy this right because of limited water resources, its non-availability, contaminated surface waters and the like, and it always creates problems for people, their families and even the community. Governments as the primary bound of this right have also sought to privatize water, because of the expense involved in collecting, storing and supplying water. But the question that arises is that, given that privatization leads to commercialization and economization of water, can it meet the characteristics and requirements of the right to water? Although there is no single global or regional model for this, the paper attempts to answer this question first by examining the nature and characteristics and requirements of the right to water from the perspective of international documents, especially the interpretative theory, and then characteristics and nature of privatization in this regard.

One of the challenges surrounding the operation of private legal entities, such as multinationals or transnational corporations, is the breach of their obligations and environmental obligations that sometimes these are cause of hurt and irreparable damages. This has been one of the concerns of developing countries as capitalist countries. Consistent environmental violations by these entities raise the question of whether these entities have in principle complied with the legal requirements for adherence and promotion of environmental standards. International environmental law appears to be a requirement, though in the form of soft law, for these individuals. The standards and norms that are hoped to be enforced and institutionalized in international law can at least justify the harmful effects of private legal entities on the environmental impacts. This article deals with the requirements and obligations of non-governmental legal entities, relying on substantive legal principles that have generally entered international environmental law by peaceful international relations and through international judicial practice.

Natural and regional peculiarities of South Khorasan have provided a basis for the growth of some medicinal herbs in the deserts of the area. Herbs such as Sweet Asa, Asafetida, Mountain Caraway, and products like these, have been among exporting items of the country in the past for various reasons. Archival documents, especially official correspondence of the era of the first Pahlavi, indicates the attention of the government to planting, harvesting, and exchange of these products. Dispatching of various governmental directives reveals the requirement of proclaiming the stock of these products to the government by merchants, their obligation to have a permit to carry and sell these, serious governmental supervision, and controlling policies of the government on these items. In the present paper, while surveying the documents, the significance of these products and governmental rules about medicinal and industrial herbs and the reasons behind them have been examined.